Resource and Environmental Economics: 2025

Monday, July 7, 2025

A Mother’s Day Tribute: Love to Every Mother in the World

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury
Originally written on May 23, 2020 — Updated May 31, 2020

About a decade ago, I fell seriously ill. I still remember how, in that storm of pain and helplessness, my mother came and sat beside me. In that haze of agony, I don’t even remember how tightly I clutched her hand against my face — all I know is, in that moment, her touch felt like the purest painkiller in the world.

I have lived away from my mother since seventh grade because of my studies — I rarely had the blessing of staying by her side for long. Whenever I came home during school or university vacations, she would cook my favorite meals with so much love. She would always give me the biggest piece of fish or meat, saying, “You’re getting so thin, you need to eat more.” She never once noticed if I gained weight — to her, I was always losing it. In those moments, I would just smile silently and think, “That’s what makes her a mother.”

When I was preparing to come to America for higher studies, my mother was deeply against it at first. She said, “I raised you with so much love and sacrifice, only for you to leave me behind? I don’t need a son who earns millions abroad — any modest job here is enough for me.” Yet in the end, she agreed — for her son’s future. I never told her how it broke my heart too. I just left — and I cried my eyes out alone, far away from her. Even now, sometimes my eyes still fill up just remembering her.

If there’s anything truly priceless in this world, it is a mother. When we are sick or broken, there’s no limit to her worry — she silently suffers more than we do. There’s a telepathy between mother and child like no other — before any misfortune hits us, somehow she knows. I truly believe that besides a mother’s love, every other love in this world has conditions attached. A mother’s love is the only love that asks for nothing in return — pure and selfless. Behind our every success and our well-being, there’s always her invisible hand of blessings.

Perhaps that’s why, in almost every sacred scripture, right after the Creator comes the mother. Those who have lost their mothers forever, or live far from her, know the true weight of this love — the emptiness, the longing, the gratitude. Those who still have their mothers close by often forget how precious she really is.

So today, on Mother’s Day, I send my deepest love to every mother on this Earth.

🌷 Happy Mother’s Day to all the mothers of the world. 🌷

🌳 Forestry in Bangladesh: Present Status, Industries, Challenges & the Way Forward

1️⃣ Introduction

Bangladesh, an independent and sovereign nation since December 1971, is one of the world’s most densely populated countries — with over 170 million people today (2024), nearly 80% of whom live in rural villages scattered across the fertile delta of the Padma, Meghna, and Jamuna rivers. Covering 147,570 sq. km, Bangladesh lies at the heart of the Bengal Basin, a region shaped by immense riverine sedimentation and home to rich biodiversity, fertile soils, and unique wetland ecosystems like haors and the world-renowned Sundarbans — the largest contiguous mangrove forest on Earth.

Forests here are far more than timber: they buffer floods, protect coastal communities from cyclones, store carbon, sustain biodiversity, and provide livelihoods for millions. Yet, population pressures, economic growth, and climate stress have put enormous strain on this natural asset. Today, sustainable forest management is not only an environmental issue but a core pillar for food security, disaster resilience, and socio-economic development.

2️⃣ Land Use & Forest Area

Bangladesh’s total land is used mainly for agriculture (~65%), with forests covering nearly 17% and urban areas about 8%. The Forest Department (FD) manages around 1.52 million hectares, including reserved, protected, and mangrove forests. Another 0.73 million hectares is designated Unclassed State Forest (USF), mainly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, and village homestead forests cover an estimated 270,000 hectares, supplying much of the country’s daily wood fuel, timber, and bamboo needs.

📊 Forest Area Snapshot

Type	Approx. Area (ha)	% of Total Land
Reserved/Protected Forest	1.52 million	10.3%
Unclassed State Forest	0.73 million	4.9%
Village/Homestead Forest	0.27 million	1.8%
Total Forest Cover	~2.52 million	17%

(Source: Forest Department 2023)

3️⃣ Forest Departments & Research Bodies

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) leads forest governance. Its major wings are:

Forest Department (FD): Manages state forests, protected areas, and social forestry programs.
Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI): Conducts research on silviculture, plantation species, pest control, and climate resilience.
Bangladesh National Herbarium (BNH): Catalogs and conserves the country’s plant biodiversity.
Bangladesh Forest Industries Development Corporation (BFIDC): Runs rubber estates, timber extraction, and wood-based industries.

The Forest Department uses modern tools like the Resource Information Management System (RIMS) and GIS to monitor forest cover, plan sustainable harvesting, and manage conservation areas.

4️⃣ Types of Forests

Bangladesh’s forests are grouped into four major types, each with unique biodiversity and socio-economic value:

🌿 1) Mangrove Forests

The Sundarbans alone spans 601,700 ha, about 40% of all forest land.
A World Heritage Site and home to the Royal Bengal Tiger, Gangetic Dolphin, estuarine crocodile, and over 600 plant species.
Mangrove plantations (raised on coastal lands since the 1960s) add another 132,000 ha, protecting vulnerable coastlines from cyclones and erosion.

🌴 2) Tropical Evergreen & Semi-Evergreen Forests

Spread across Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar, Sylhet, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts (~670,000 ha).
Dominated by Garjan, Telsur, Chapalish, and valuable bamboo and cane resources.
Important wildlife includes elephants, leopards, barking deer, and rare reptiles like the King Cobra.

🌾 3) Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

The Sal forests of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Tangail, and Dinajpur cover ~120,000 ha.
Sal (Shorea robusta) is the dominant species.
Now managed mostly through participatory forestry involving local communities.

🏡 4) Village Forests

Homestead trees, woodlots, strip plantations along roads and railways.
These provide about 50% of Bangladesh’s total timber, fuelwood, bamboo, and small poles — highlighting their critical contribution to rural livelihoods.

5️⃣ Forestry Practices: From Past to Present

Past Management

Scientific forestry began under British colonial rule in 1876, with revenue-focused extraction of valuable species like Sundri and Garjan. Early forest divisions like Chittagong (1872) and Sundarbans (1879) were managed for timber revenue.

Modern Management

Today, forestry emphasizes:

Conservation (wildlife habitat, biodiversity).
Sustainable harvesting guided by working plans and RIMS/GIS.
Community participation through Social and Participatory Forestry, Agroforestry, and Co-management Councils.
Climate adaptation: Mangrove afforestation, watershed protection, degraded land restoration.

The Forestry Master Plan (1993, under revision) sets the strategic roadmap: enhancing forest cover, rational land use, expanding protected areas, and empowering local communities.

6️⃣ Special Practices

🔵 Social Forestry

Started in the 1980s to:

Supply fuelwood and small timber to rural households.
Create jobs through roadside, embankment, and strip plantations.
Improve soil and water conservation.

Millions of farmers now participate under benefit-sharing rules.

🟢 Agroforestry

Combines crops with trees on the same land.

Sal forests in Tangail, Mymensingh, and Dinajpur use Taungya methods for replanting.
New programs under ADB-funded projects aim to plant 12,000+ hectares with community farmers.

🟡 Participatory Forestry

Community-based co-management protects forests and ensures locals receive a share of benefits. This has proved successful in degraded Sal forests and coastal belts.

7️⃣ Protected Areas

Protected Areas now cover about 10.7% of forest land, including:

Wildlife Sanctuaries (e.g., Sundarbans East, West, South).
National Parks (e.g., Lawachara, Bhawal, Madhupur).
Game Reserves for sustainable wildlife populations.

8️⃣ Forest-Based Industries

Major sectors include:

Sawmills (6,000+ units, mostly informal).
Furniture & wood crafts (40,000+ SMEs).
Pulp & paper (Karnafuli, Sylhet, Khulna).
Panel boards & hardboards (Khulna Hardboard Mills).
Bamboo, cane, pati-pata crafts (support thousands of rural artisans).

Many state-run units are under privatization for efficiency and modernization. The BFIDC manages timber extraction, rubber estates, and allied industries.

9️⃣ Environmental Issues & Challenges

🌍 Air Pollution:
High urban air pollution boosts demand for urban forests, roadside plantations, and green belts.

💧 Water Pollution:
Arsenic in groundwater, agrochemical runoff, and industrial effluents threaten watersheds. Forestry is key to catchment protection.

🌳 Shrinking Green Cover:
Encroachment, illegal logging, and land-use change cause annual forest loss (~2,500–3,000 ha).

🌱 Exotic Species vs. Native:
Fast-growing exotics like Eucalyptus face ecological scrutiny. Research supports mixed plantations with resilient native species.

🏞️ Outdoor Recreation:
Eco-tourism is expanding but must balance revenue with ecosystem protection.

🧑‍🌾 Soil Degradation & Fuelwood Demand:
Depleted soils and overharvesting highlight the need for agroforestry, biogas expansion, and silvo-pasture systems.

🔟 Conclusions & Recommendations

1️⃣ Expand Protected Areas to at least 17% of forest land to meet global biodiversity targets.

2️⃣ Revitalize degraded forests through community-managed reforestation and agroforestry.

3️⃣ Modernize industries with certified supply chains, cleaner technology, and bamboo & rattan value chains.

4️⃣ Invest in data & technology: regular national inventories, drones, and remote sensing.

5️⃣ Enhance people’s participation with secure tenure, fair benefit-sharing, and local decision-making.

6️⃣ Strengthen forest education & research, update curricula, and expand training for field staff and community co-managers.

7️⃣ Access climate finance & carbon markets for mangrove restoration, REDD+, and nature-based solutions.

Forests are Bangladesh’s lifeline — a vital natural shield for people, rivers, wildlife, and the climate. A sustainable, community-driven approach to forestry is not just an option but a necessity for the future prosperity and resilience of this vibrant nation.

📚 Key References

Bangladesh Forest Department (2023)
FAO State of the World’s Forests
BFRI Annual Reports
IQAir Air Quality Report (2023)
World Bank & ADB Forestry Sector Projects
National Forest Inventory (under update)
IPCC AR6 Climate Impact Reports

🌿 Together, Bangladesh can protect, restore, and grow its green legacy for generations to come.

🌿 Detailed Forest Management & Sustainability Trends in Bangladesh

📌 1️⃣ Past to Present: Evolution of Forest Management

Historical Roots:
Forest management in Bangladesh has its roots in colonial-era practices under British rule. Back then, the priority was commercial extraction — especially valuable timber like teak, Sundri, and Sal — to supply the colonial economy. The 19th-century appointment of Sir Dietrich Brandis as Inspector General of Forests for India formalized scientific forest management, including the introduction of working plans and sustained yield principles.

Post-Independence Shift:
After 1971, Bangladesh inherited both opportunities and challenges: large tracts of degraded forests, population pressure, and institutional weaknesses. For decades, extraction-driven management continued. But by the 1990s, with aid from agencies like ADB, FAO, JICA, and World Bank, the focus shifted from pure revenue generation to sustainability, biodiversity conservation, and people’s participation.

This change crystalized in the Forestry Master Plan (FMP) 1993, which guides present policy and was revised in the early 2000s with updated goals for community forestry, co-management, carbon sequestration, and resilience to climate change.

📌 2️⃣ Current Forest Management: Community, Technology & Conservation

✅ Modern Objectives

Modern forestry in Bangladesh pursues a multi-functional role:

Production: Meet domestic wood demand (about 40 million m³ annually) without degrading natural forests.
Protection: Maintain biodiversity, protect wildlife habitats, safeguard watersheds, and preserve soil fertility.
Climate Resilience: Expand carbon sinks to meet Bangladesh’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
Livelihoods: Create jobs for rural poor through participatory forestry, eco-tourism, and sustainable harvesting of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs).

📌 3️⃣ Major Forest Types & Their Present Context

🗺️ Mangrove Forests — Sundarbans

The Sundarbans, covering ~6,017 sq km (601,700 ha), is the largest single block of mangrove forest in the world — a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.

Recent research:

Sundarbans acts as a critical carbon sink, storing ~56 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent (Source: IUCN Bangladesh, 2022).
Facing threats: Increased cyclones (e.g., Cyclone Amphan, 2020) have salinized freshwater zones, threatening Sundri trees — which make up 73% of biomass.
The Bangladesh Forest Department, with World Bank’s Climate Resilience Program, is piloting mangrove restoration with salt-tolerant species, integrating community-based watch groups.

🗺️ Hill Forests — Chittagong & Sylhet

Covering ~670,000 ha, these evergreen and semi-evergreen forests are biodiversity hotspots.

Updated trends:

Deforestation rates remain high: ~2,500 ha lost annually (FAO, 2022).
Encroachment for Jhum (shifting cultivation) and illegal logging persists.
Collaborative management initiatives like Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary Co-Management Committee show promise — local ethnic communities help patrol forests and receive eco-tourism income.

🗺️ Sal Forests — Madhupur & Gazipur

Once covering 10% of Bangladesh’s forests, Sal forests have shrunk dramatically due to encroachment and overharvesting.

Research insights:

Participatory Social Forestry (PSF) programs re-greened ~60,000 ha degraded Sal forest with fast-growing mixed plantations (Teak, Gamar, Mahogany).
New research shows that community-managed Sal forest blocks have higher survival rates and better carbon stocks than state-managed monocultures (BRAC University, 2021).

🗺️ Village Forests — Homestead Agroforestry

Village forests provide ~70% of domestic timber and fuelwood.

Over 20 million rural households practice homestead agroforestry.
Recent innovations include multi-story fruit-tree systems, bamboo groves, and community bamboo banks, inspired by indigenous practices in CHT and Sylhet.

📌 4️⃣ Social, Agro & Participatory Forestry: Global Best Practices in Local Context

Bangladesh’s success with Social Forestry is widely studied:

Over 200,000 ha of marginal roadsides, embankments, and railway strips have been greened with community-managed plantations.
Benefit-sharing: Farmers get ~60-70% of profits from final harvests.
New studies (FAO, 2023) show PSF also enhances local climate resilience by stabilizing soil and providing flood buffers.

Agroforestry research:
A 2022 pilot by BFRI and ADB found mixed agroforestry in Sal forests can increase carbon sequestration by 35%, diversify rural incomes, and support food security.

📌 5️⃣ Resource Information Management: Big Data & Digital Monitoring

Bangladesh’s RIMS/GIS Unit now partners with international tech to map forests with remote sensing, drones, and AI. The Forest Inventory 2019, done with FAO support, provided the first national biomass map — revealing that:

The national average tree cover density is about 11.2% (lower than South Asia’s 19% average).
Annual forest loss is estimated at 0.3% — still above the global sustainable rate.

The RIMS system supports early warning for illegal logging, carbon accounting for REDD+ programs, and improved working plans.

📌 6️⃣ Emerging Topics: Climate Finance & Biodiversity Markets

🔍 New studies link Bangladesh’s forests to global carbon finance:

Pilot REDD+ projects in Sundarbans and CHT are testing carbon credits.
Bangladesh aims to attract voluntary carbon market investments, aligned with SDG 13.

🔍 Community-Based Ecotourism:

Lawachara, Kaptai, and Satchari National Parks are now revenue-generating.
Local guides, homestays, and women’s cooperatives earn incomes while supporting wildlife conservation.

📌 7️⃣ Research & Innovation Needs Ahead

📚 Leading local research needs:

Species-specific climate resilience studies (e.g., Sundri replacement species)
Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) models for smallholder forests.
Better monitoring of biodiversity corridors between protected areas.
Urban forestry expansion in Dhaka & Chattogram to combat urban heat.

Key partners: Bangladesh Forest Department, BFRI, IUCN, FAO, USAID’s EcoLife Project, UN REDD+, BRAC University, and private sector carbon traders.

✅ Conclusion: Bangladesh’s Forests at a Crossroads

Bangladesh’s forest future depends on strengthening:

People-centered management
Science-based planning
Climate adaptation financing
Community rights & benefit-sharing

The vision: forests that sustain biodiversity, store carbon, protect coasts, buffer climate shocks, and secure dignified green jobs for millions.

📚 Key References

Bangladesh Forest Department Annual Reports (2021–2023)
FAO State of the World’s Forests 2022
IUCN Bangladesh Sundarbans Climate Vulnerability Assessment
BFRI Research Bulletins (latest volumes)
World Bank Climate Resilience in Coastal Forests Reports
UN REDD+ Bangladesh Country Updates
ADB Forestry Sector Impact Review 2022

🌿 Bangladesh’s Forest Resources, Institutions, and Sustainable Management (Part 3)

📌 8.10. Other Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)

The forests of Bangladesh supply a wide range of other economically significant non-timber products that contribute substantially to rural livelihoods and the national economy. Examples include:

Medicinal plants: Over 500 plant species in Bangladesh forests have recognized medicinal properties. Many rural households depend on wild medicinal plants for primary health care and local traditional medicine production.
Resins & Gums: Various species produce valuable gums and resins, used locally and exported.
Wild fruits & nuts: Many indigenous fruits collected from forests supplement local diets and markets.
Ornamental plants & flowers: Villagers often collect wild orchids, creepers, and flowering plants to sell in urban nurseries.
Fuelwood & fodder: Village forests supply the bulk of rural fuelwood and leaf fodder for livestock.

✅ 9. Protected Areas Network

Bangladesh’s protected area system covers 10.72% of its total forest area. This network includes Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks, Game Reserves, and proposed Community Conservation Areas.

🔹 Wildlife Sanctuaries

Key wildlife sanctuaries include:

Sundarbans East, West & South Wildlife Sanctuaries — part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary (Habiganj)
Dudhpukuria-Dhopachari Wildlife Sanctuary (Chattogram)

These sanctuaries conserve critical habitats for flagship species like the Royal Bengal Tiger, Asian elephants, hoolock gibbons, and many migratory birds.

🔹 National Parks

Prominent national parks are:

Lawachara National Park (Sylhet)
Kaptai National Park (Rangamati)
Madhupur National Park (Tangail)
Bhawal National Park (Gazipur)

National parks protect large scenic forest tracts for biodiversity conservation, public recreation, education, and research.

🔹 Game Reserves

Game Reserves aim to protect important wildlife populations while permitting some regulated tourism and research activities.

✅ 10. Forest Revenue, Local Livelihoods & Challenges

The forest sector generates revenue not only from timber sales but also increasingly from Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) and ecotourism. Coastal mangroves, for example, supply honey, fish, crabs, and Golpata thatching leaves — these resources directly benefit thousands of coastal families.

However, overexploitation, illegal logging, unsustainable harvesting of NWFPs, and encroachment continue to threaten forest sustainability. Community-based forest management and benefit-sharing arrangements are therefore critical.

✅ 11. Modern Forestry Trends: Participatory, Social, Agroforestry

✔️ Social Forestry

Bangladesh pioneered social forestry to provide fuelwood, poles, and small timber while empowering local communities with income and employment. Homestead tree planting, roadside strip plantations, and marginal land plantations now supply a significant share of domestic wood demand.

✔️ Agroforestry

Agroforestry combines agriculture and forestry — a traditional system like Taungya in hill tracts is now modernized to:

Reforest degraded lands,
Enhance farm incomes,
Increase biodiversity.

Sal forest areas in Tangail, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, and Dinajpur are prime examples of successful agroforestry models.

✔️ Participatory Forestry

Bangladesh’s shift from a purely custodial to participatory approach has brought thousands of households into community forest management — ensuring that locals share the benefits and feel invested in conservation. Major projects like ADB’s Community Forestry Project and the ongoing Forestry Sector Project embody this approach.

✅ 12. Sustainable Future Directions

Bangladesh’s forests remain under pressure from population growth, land use change, climate change impacts (like cyclones and coastal erosion), and poverty-driven dependency on forest products.

Key recommendations for a sustainable forestry future:
1️⃣ Expand coastal afforestation to protect the coastline and support livelihoods.
2️⃣ Scale up community forestry, agroforestry, and social forestry models.
3️⃣ Strengthen protected area management for critical habitats and wildlife corridors.
4️⃣ Enhance forest monitoring through modern GIS & RIMS technologies.
5️⃣ Develop eco-tourism as an alternative income source.
6️⃣ Invest in capacity building for local communities, especially women.
7️⃣ Promote sustainable harvesting and value chains for NWFPs.
8️⃣ Strengthen policies for climate-resilient forest landscape restoration.

📚 References & Sources

Bangladesh Forest Department Reports (2021–2023)
MoEFCC National Forest Policy & Master Plan Updates (2022)
FAO State of Forests in Asia & the Pacific (2022)
IUCN Bangladesh country reports
BFRI Annual Research Highlights
ADB Forestry Sector Project Reviews
RIMS/GIS Unit Annual Data Summaries
Sundarban World Heritage Site Management Plan

✅ Conclusion:
Bangladesh’s forests — whether the mighty Sundarbans mangroves, hill forests of Chattogram, tropical Sal forests of Madhupur, or village woodlots — remain the nation’s green lungs and natural shield against climate and disaster risks. Modern forest management rooted in community participation, scientific planning, digital monitoring, and fair benefit-sharing is key to ensuring these forests sustain both nature and people for generations to come.

🌿 Bangladesh’s Forest Resources, Institutions, and Sustainable Management (Part 2)

📌 5.1. Mangrove Forests (continued)

🔹 ii. Mangrove Plantation (continued)

Coastal mangrove plantations have proved invaluable for shoreline stabilization, protection against cyclones, tidal surges, and coastal erosion, and supporting biodiversity and livelihoods for local communities. The Bangladesh Forest Department pioneered these coastal plantations — a significant success story of applied silviculture under adverse conditions.

Since 1965–66, over 196,000 hectares of mangrove plantations have been raised across foreshore lands, newly accreted char lands, embankments, and coastal islands. Despite losses due to natural calamities such as cyclones and tidal erosion, the current net mangrove plantation area stands at approximately 132,000 hectares (FD, 2022).

These plantations are primarily composed of fast-growing mangrove species such as:

Keora (Sonneratia apetala)
Baen (Avicennia officinalis)
Gewas (Excoecaria agallocha)

Coastal communities harvest non-timber resources like honey, fish, crabs, and Golpata (Nypa fruticans) thatching leaves, which add significant economic value and support thousands of coastal households.

📌 5.2. Tropical Evergreen & Semi-Evergreen Forests

These forests are mainly found in the Chattogram Hill Tracts (CHT), Cox’s Bazar, and Sylhet regions. They cover about 672,000 hectares, comprising around 27% of the country’s forest land. Dominant species include:

Garjan (Dipterocarpus spp.)
Chapalish (Artocarpus chaplasha)
Civit (Swintonia floribunda)
Various bamboos

These forests host diverse wildlife including elephants, hoolock gibbons, clouded leopards, and a wide variety of birds and reptiles. The terrain is hilly with rugged slopes, making sustainable management challenging yet crucial.

Key issues:

Shifting cultivation (jhum) by indigenous communities
Illegal logging
Encroachment

Management strategies:
Recent policies promote community forestry, co-management, and alternative livelihood programs to reduce pressure on these forests while preserving indigenous rights and cultural practices.

📌 5.3. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests (Sal Forests)

These forests cover about 120,000 hectares, primarily in the central Madhupur and Bhawal Garh regions. Sal (Shorea robusta) is the dominant tree species, with associates like koroi, jarul, and mahua.

Historically, sal forests have suffered massive degradation due to:

Encroachment and illegal settlements
Agricultural conversion
Overharvesting

Current management:
Social forestry and participatory forestry programs have been introduced to rehabilitate degraded sal forests. Local communities are now directly involved in protection, reforestation, and benefit-sharing schemes.

📌 5.4. Village Forests

Village forests, also called homestead forests, represent Bangladesh’s most productive tree resource per hectare. Spread across ~270,000 hectares, these woodlots consist of mixed plantations on private land, mostly around homes and farmsteads.

Key species include:

Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla)
Teak (Tectona grandis)
Fruit trees: mango, jackfruit, coconut, betel nut
Bamboos

Contribution:
Village forests meet over 80% of domestic timber and fuelwood demand and play a crucial role in rural household economies, biodiversity conservation, and carbon sequestration.

✅ 6. Modern Trends: Towards Sustainable Forest Management

Bangladesh’s forest management has evolved dramatically:

From revenue-driven logging to multi-purpose sustainable management
From exclusion of communities to community-based participatory forestry
From paper maps to modern GIS-based forest monitoring (RIMS/GIS)

The Resource Information Management System (RIMS) and GIS Unit have revolutionized planning. Forest inventories are now digitized, yield estimates are more reliable, and data flows between field divisions and the headquarters in real-time, enabling better decision-making.

📌 7. Future Directions

To safeguard its forest heritage, Bangladesh must:
✔ Expand social forestry and agroforestry on marginal lands.
✔ Strengthen community rights and benefit-sharing.
✔ Restore degraded forests through co-management.
✔ Scale up mangrove afforestation for climate resilience.
✔ Promote eco-tourism and non-timber forest products.
✔ Integrate climate adaptation into all forestry plans.

📌 8. Conclusion

From the historic Sundarbans to the lush hill forests of Chattogram and Sylhet, and the thriving homestead forests across villages — Bangladesh’s forests are its green backbone. They protect its people from storms, sustain millions of livelihoods, conserve biodiversity, and fight climate change.

A future-ready forest management system — rooted in community participation, modern data systems like RIMS/GIS, and robust conservation — is key to ensuring that this natural wealth endures for generations to come.

📚 References

Bangladesh Forest Department Reports (2019–2023)
RIMS/GIS Annual Reports
FAO. (2021). Global Forest Resources Assessment: Bangladesh Country Report.
MoEFCC (2022). Bangladesh Forestry Master Plan (update draft).
Sundarban World Heritage Site Management Plan
ADB/UNDP/FAO Forestry Sector Study (1993)
BFRI Annual Reports
World Bank & IDA Second Forestry Project Documentation

🌿 Bangladesh’s Forest Resources, Institutions, and Sustainable Management (Part 1)

🌿 Bangladesh’s Forest Resources, Institutions, and Sustainable Management

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury, PhD

✅ 1️⃣ Introduction

Bangladesh, an independent nation since 1971, sits in the northeastern part of South Asia, bounded by India, Myanmar, and the Bay of Bengal. Its population exceeds 170 million as of 2024, accounting for about 2% of the world’s population, with a density among the highest on earth — over 1,200 people per sq. km. More than 75% of the population still live in rural areas scattered across almost 60,000 villages, and the average household size remains around 4.5 persons.

Geographically, Bangladesh lies within the Bengal Basin, one of the world’s largest and most active delta regions, formed by sediments deposited by the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) river system. Over 90% of its annual river flow originates outside its borders, from India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. As a low-lying delta, it is prone to seasonal floods that inundate ~20% of its land each monsoon.

Despite population pressure and land scarcity, Bangladesh possesses diverse natural resources, of which forests play a critical but increasingly threatened role. Forests provide timber, fuelwood, poles, bamboo, food, medicinal plants, and act as vital wildlife habitats. They buffer communities from cyclones, tidal surges, and soil erosion, influence rainfall, maintain biodiversity, and sustain local economies.

The country’s climate is subtropical monsoon, with rainfall ranging from 1,200 mm to 3,500 mm. Major crops include rice (the staple), jute, sugarcane, wheat, tea, and pulses. Garments, jute goods, tea, fish, leather, and forest products are significant export earners.

However, rapid deforestation, population pressure, and unsustainable exploitation threaten this fragile natural base. Environmental planning and sustainable forest management are essential to support livelihoods, mitigate disasters, and protect biodiversity for future generations.

✅ 2️⃣ Land Use & Forest Cover

Land use breakdown (approx.):

65% Agricultural land
~17% Forest land (state and private)
~8% Urban and built-up areas
~10% Rivers, wetlands, other uses

Bangladesh’s total forest area is about 2.52 million hectares (~17% of total land). This includes:

1.52 million hectares managed by the Forest Department (reserved, protected, acquired forests, and mangrove forests such as the Sundarbans).
0.73 million hectares of Unclassed State Forests (USF) managed by the Ministry of Land.
About 0.27 million hectares of village forests — homestead woodlots, agroforestry plots, tea/rubber gardens — which form a vital private tree resource base.

Key forest regions:

Hill forests in Chattogram, Cox’s Bazar, Sylhet, and Mymensingh
The world-famous Sundarbans Mangrove Forest, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
New mangrove plantations on accreted coastal land
Sal forests in central regions (e.g., Madhupur Garh)

📊 Table: Major Forest Areas in Bangladesh (estimates)

Forest Type	Area (million ha)	Managing Authority
Reserved/Protected Forests	1.52	Forest Department
Unclassed State Forests (USF)	0.73	Ministry of Land
Village/Private Forests	0.27	Private owners
Total	2.52	—

✅ 3️⃣ Forest Departments & Key Institutions

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) is the nodal agency for:

Planning, policy-making, and oversight of forestry and biodiversity
Implementing the Environment Conservation Act (1995)

🔹 Key bodies under MoEFCC:

🟢 Department of Forests

Manages reserved, protected, and coastal forests
Responsible for forest conservation, reforestation, social forestry, wildlife management, eco-tourism, and forest law enforcement.

🟢 Department of Environment (DoE)

Regulates environmental impact assessments (EIA)
Enforces pollution control measures
Monitors compliance with environmental standards.

🟢 Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI)

Founded in 1955 to develop technologies for sustainable forest productivity and forest-based industries.
Researches plantation techniques, pest and disease management, biodiversity conservation, and forest product processing.

🟢 Bangladesh National Herbarium (BNH)

Documents, collects, and conserves the country’s plant biodiversity.
Maintains a national collection of plant specimens, which serves as a reference for conservation, education, and sustainable use.

🟢 Bangladesh Forest Industries Development Corporation (BFIDC)

Manages commercial extraction of timber from remote forests.
Operates sawmills, plywood factories, furniture units, rubber plantations.
Since 1961, BFIDC has developed over 32,000 acres of rubber plantations in Chattogram, Sylhet, Tangail, Mymensingh, and a pilot site in Rangpur’s Barind Tract.
Provides technical support for 33,000 acres of private rubber plantations.

✅ 4️⃣ Forest Management & Ecosystem Services

Forests are vital renewable resources — they:

Provide wood for construction, furniture, poles, fuel, pulp, and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) like honey, fruits, medicinal plants.
Regulate climate, rainfall, and river flows.
Act as natural shields against cyclones and tidal surges, especially in coastal areas like the Sundarbans.
Support eco-tourism (e.g., Sundarbans tiger reserves, hill tracts, wildlife sanctuaries).

Eco-tourism is increasingly promoted as a sustainable income stream that preserves forest integrity and generates alternative livelihoods for local communities.

✅ 5️⃣ Challenges & Priorities

However, Bangladesh’s forests face critical challenges:

Rapid deforestation due to encroachment, illegal logging, shifting cultivation.
Degradation of hill forests and mangroves.
Loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity.
Climate change threats like sea level rise, saltwater intrusion, increased cyclone intensity.

✅ 6️⃣ Way Forward

Key recommendations:
✔ Strengthen community-based forest management and social forestry.
✔ Expand afforestation and reforestation programs.
✔ Improve forest law enforcement to stop illegal logging.
✔ Promote rubber, bamboo, and fast-growing timber plantations on marginal land.
✔ Scale up eco-tourism and nature-based enterprises for local income.
✔ Integrate climate change resilience into forest planning.
✔ Invest in research, modern mapping, and monitoring.
✔ Enhance public awareness and local participation.

📌 Conclusion

Forests remain Bangladesh’s green shield — protecting people, biodiversity, and livelihoods. With smart management, strong institutions, and local stewardship, Bangladesh can balance development needs with conservation, ensuring that its forests continue to sustain life for generations to come.

📌 Bangladesh Fisheries Sector: Resources, Production & Institutional Framework

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury, PhD

✅ 1️⃣ Introduction

Bangladesh, a lower riparian South Asian country crisscrossed by hundreds of rivers and floodplains, has long relied on its inland and marine waters for food security, livelihoods, and export earnings. Fish and shrimp are the second-largest agricultural export after ready-made garments. The fisheries sector supplies about 60% of animal protein consumed by Bangladeshis and employs ~11% of the national workforce directly or indirectly.

Over the past two decades, Bangladesh has sustained impressive growth in aquaculture and capture fisheries:

The sector contributes ~4.5% to GDP and ~23% to agricultural GDP (Bangladesh Economic Review, 2023).
The sector’s annual growth rate has averaged 5–7%, outperforming crops and livestock.
Bangladesh has become the 5th largest aquaculture producer globally (FAO, 2022).

The country’s extensive natural water bodies — rivers, beels, haors, baors, ponds, floodplains, and a 480 km coastline with a 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) — provide vast fishery potential.

✅ 2️⃣ Sources of Revenue

The Department of Fisheries (DoF) generates revenue entirely through non-tax revenues (NTR), including:

Leasing public water bodies,
Licensing fishers and traders,
Fees from fish landing centers,
Royalties from processing plants and export clearances.

📊 Example Table: Non-Tax Revenue by DoF (FY 2019–2024)

Year	Non-Tax Revenue (Million BDT)
2019	1,240
2020	1,285
2021	1,310
2022	1,450
2023	1,600
2024	1,750 (est.)

✅ 3️⃣ Fish Marketing, Export & Import

Bangladesh is a major shrimp exporter.

Farmed shrimp (black tiger shrimp Bagda and freshwater prawn Golda) are the largest fishery export.
Seafood exports contribute ~2.5% of total export earnings.
82 processing plants, all HACCP-certified, export to the EU, USA, Japan, Russia, Korea, China, India, and Middle Eastern markets.

Bangladesh faced export challenges when the EU detected Nitrofuran metabolites in freshwater prawn shipments in 2009. A six-month voluntary ban and stricter residue monitoring followed. Collaborative measures with the EU, donors, and international experts helped resolve the crisis — Bangladesh remains compliant with EU food safety requirements.

Key export hubs: Chattogram and Mongla seaports, Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport, and five land-border points for exports to India.

Fishing equipment imports: Since the 1970s, Bangladesh has imported trawlers, marine engines, synthetic twine, ice plants, cold storage trucks, and training vessels from countries like Denmark, Japan, USSR, Norway, and India.

✅ 4️⃣ Aquaculture & Fish Farming Practices

4.1 Pond Aquaculture

Pond culture is the backbone of inland aquaculture:

Covers ~3.5 lakh hectares (~7.4% of inland water).
Contributes nearly 50% of inland fish production (~1.2 million MT).
Composite carp polyculture yields ~3,400 kg/ha; intensive pangas farming in Mymensingh yields up to 60+ tons/ha.

4.2 Paddy Field Aquaculture

Bangladesh’s 8 million ha of paddy fields double as seasonal fish habitats. ~2.8 million ha of seasonal floodplains retain water for 4–5 months — ideal for integrated rice-fish culture.

4.3 Borrow-Pit & Canal (Khal) Culture

Flood Control, Drainage & Irrigation (FCDI) projects have rehabilitated borrow-pits and khals for community-based fish farming.

4.4 Baor (Oxbow Lake) Culture

There are ~600 baors covering ~5,500 ha, mostly in Jessore and Kushtia. Community co-management, fingerling stocking, and improved feeding have boosted baor yields from 80 kg/ha to ~750 kg/ha.

4.5 Cage Culture

Cage culture for tilapia and pangas has gained ground in rivers and canals — especially in Chandpur, Laxmipur, Barishal, and Mymensingh. Over 6,000 cages produced ~6,750 MT fish in 2023.

4.6 Pen Culture

Pens built with bamboo or netting rear carp and tilapia in floodplains and canals. Pen sizes vary from 0.5 to several hectares.

4.7 Integrated Fish Farming

Rice–fish–duck systems are increasingly popular. BFRI research shows 500 Khaki Campbell ducks on a 1-ha pond can yield 4.5 tons/ha of carp, while also producing eggs and meat. Traditional sump ponds in paddy fields enhance fish survival during dry seasons.

✅ 5️⃣ Shrimp Culture

Shrimp farming districts: Bagerhat, Satkhira, Pirojpur, Khulna, Cox’s Bazar, Chattogram.

Coastal ‘gher’ enclosures trap tidal water for Bagda culture.
Farmers are moving towards semi-intensive systems with improved feed and disease control.

Environmental issues include:

Mangrove destruction,
Bycatch of non-target larvae during post-larvae (PL) collection,
Disease outbreaks (e.g., White Spot Syndrome).

✅ 6️⃣ Institutional Framework

Key institutions:

Department of Fisheries (DoF): Main policy & management authority with 6 divisional, 64 district, 497 upazila offices, 118 hatcheries, and 4 training centers.
Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI): Conducts R&D and adaptive research.
BFDC (Bangladesh Fisheries Development Corporation): Oversees commercial harvesting, fish harbors, ice plants.
Bangladesh Jatiya Motshyajibi Samabaya Samity (BJMSS): Fisher cooperative for production, processing.
Export Promotion Bureau (EPB) & Bangladesh Frozen Foods Exporters Association (BFFEA): Manage export facilitation.
Universities (BAU Mymensingh, Chattogram, Khulna, Dhaka, Rajshahi): Provide higher fisheries education.
NGOs & donors: DFID, JICA, Danida, WorldFish, CIRDAP support capacity building.
Banks & microfinance: Provide loans to small farmers.

✅ 7️⃣ Fish Processing Sector

Processing hubs:

BFDC: Operates plants in Cox’s Bazar, Chattogram, Mongla. Facilities include freezing, canning, fishmeal, and shark liver oil units.
BSFIC: Factories in Khulna & Chattogram.
BJMSS: Owns export-oriented freezing units.
Private sector: 80+ modern HACCP-certified plants.
Traditional drying: Small fishers sun-dry ~3,000 tons/year on Dubla Island alone.

✅ 8️⃣ Applied Research, Education & Training

Research priorities are coordinated by BARC, DoF, BFRI, universities.
Degree programs offered at BAU, Chattogram, Khulna, Dhaka, Rajshahi.
Training: Marine Fisheries Academy, Fisheries Training Institutes (Savar, Chandpur, Raipur, Faridpur), Youth Training Centers.
International donors (World Bank, DFID, Danida, NORAD) support capacity building.

✅ 9️⃣ Trends & Challenges

Key concerns:

Overfishing, habitat degradation.
Disease outbreaks in shrimp.
Climate change impacts on spawning & migration.
Improving food safety to meet export standards.

✅ 🔍 10️⃣ Recommendations

✔ Bring underused water bodies under modern culture.
✔ Boost employment through value-added fish processing.
✔ Strengthen co-management & biodiversity conservation.
✔ Develop eco-friendly landing & cold chain infrastructure.
✔ Link research to farmers with strong extension.
✔ Provide accessible credit for smallholders.
✔ Expand sustainable production for food security & exports.

📌 Bangladesh Fisheries Sector: Updated Overview, Resources & Production (2025)

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury

✅ 1️⃣ Introduction

Bangladesh is a riverine South Asian nation, located between latitudes 20°34′–26°39′ N and longitudes 80°00′–90°41′ E. Its unique deltaic landscape, with thousands of rivers, floodplains, and coastal wetlands, has shaped the country’s socio-economic structure — where fisheries play a vital role in nutrition, livelihoods, exports, and biodiversity conservation.

Fish and shrimp are Bangladesh’s second-most valuable agricultural commodities, providing 60% of national animal protein intake and securing the livelihoods of millions of rural households. The sector’s major goals are:

To ensure food and nutrition security,
Reduce rural poverty through employment and income generation,
Expand exports of fish, shrimp, and prawn,
Protect aquatic biodiversity and maintain the ecological balance of inland and coastal waters.

Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh’s fisheries have grown remarkably:

In 2023–24, fisheries contribute ~4.5% to national GDP and ~23% to the agricultural GDP (Bangladesh Economic Review, 2024).
Over 11% of Bangladeshis — more than 20 million people — are directly or indirectly employed in fishing, farming, processing, transport, or export.

The sector’s average annual growth rate remains strong at 5–7%, the highest among Bangladesh’s agricultural subsectors. The total fish production surpassed 4.8 million metric tons in 2023 — an increase of nearly 80% since 2000.

Bangladesh’s inland and coastal water resources are vast:

40.2 lakh hectares of open inland waters: rivers (8.5 lakh ha), the Sundarbans mangroves (1.8 lakh ha), beels (1.1 lakh ha), floodplains (28.3 lakh ha), and the Kaptai reservoir (68,800 ha).
About 1.58 million hectares of perennial inland water and an additional 2.8 million hectares of seasonal monsoon-flooded land suitable for seasonal fish culture.
480 km coastline plus a 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the Bay of Bengal.

Beels, the shallow natural wetlands, are some of the most productive inland fish habitats, with major examples like Chalan Beel, Arial Beel, Dekhar Beel, and Gopalganj-Khulna Beel. These seasonal floodplain wetlands support the life cycle of many native fish and prawn species.

✅ 2️⃣ Fishery Resources

🔹 2.1 Inland Fisheries

Bangladesh’s inland fishery resources are among the largest and richest in the world. They contribute over 80–82% of total fish production.

Inland fisheries are divided into:
1️⃣ Open water fisheries: Rivers, estuaries, haors, baors (oxbow lakes), and beels connected to river systems.
2️⃣ Closed water fisheries: Ponds, tanks, dighis, seasonal floodplains, and shrimp/prawn farms.

🔹 Key resources:

Rivers & estuaries: Major spawning grounds for carp species like Rui, Catla, Mrigal.
- Important spawning sites:
  - Halda River (the only pure Indian carp river breeding ground in South Asia),
  - Arial Khan,
  - Garai, Ganges, Jamuna, Old Brahmaputra.
Baors: Ox-bow lakes, mostly in Jessore and Kushtia (e.g., Baluhar, Joydia).
Haors/Beels: Sylhet-Mymensingh basin has the country’s largest seasonal wetlands — e.g., Kakaluki Haor (36,437 ha), Tangua Haor (25,506 ha).

🔹 Closed waters:

Ponds/tanks: Spread nationwide — many originally dug by zamindars, kings, and feudal lords centuries ago.
Many derelict tanks have been revitalized for modern aquaculture.
Shrimp/prawn farms: Coastal and brackish water zones are key areas.

Key figure: Though closed water covers only 15% of inland water areas, it produces over 50% of inland fish output due to the higher productivity of controlled aquaculture.

🔹 2.2 Marine Fisheries

Bangladesh’s marine zone covers:

A continental shelf area of ~67,000 sq. km.
Territorial waters of about 1 million hectares.
An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles (320 km) into the Bay of Bengal.

The continental shelf (shallow waters up to 200 meters deep) supports demersal and pelagic fisheries. Bangladesh’s marine waters are rich in shrimp, Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha), pomfret, Bombay duck, and mackerel. But only 18% of the country’s total fish output comes from marine capture fisheries — with huge potential still untapped due to limited deep-sea fleet and technology.

✅ 3️⃣ Production Trends

Since the early 1980s, Bangladesh has made major progress in:

Expanding brackish water aquaculture, especially black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon).
Shrimp culture area rose from 140,000 ha in 1980 to ~214,000 ha by 2020–2023.
Inland pond fish farming (carp polyculture) has modernized with improved broodstock management and hatchery operations.

Recent policy shifts emphasize:

Sustainable aquaculture intensification,
Improved hatcheries and fry supply,
Conservation of wild stocks (e.g., bans during Hilsa breeding),
Community-based co-management of open water bodies.

Key production data:

In 2008–09, total fish production was 2.7 million MT.
By 2010–11, this rose to 3.06 million MT.
By 2023, total output is estimated to have crossed 4.8 million MT, with:
- ~82% inland fish (aquaculture + capture)
- ~18% marine fish.

Exports: Shrimp remains Bangladesh’s second-largest agricultural export, earning about USD 400–500 million annually, mainly from black tiger shrimp and freshwater prawns.

✅ 4️⃣ Future Priorities & Vision

Bangladesh’s fisheries roadmap aims for:

Raising inland aquaculture productivity with better feed, seed, disease management.
Expanding community-based open water management to boost sustainable catch from rivers, beels, haors.
Tapping unexploited marine resources through modern trawlers, deep-sea fleet investment, and eco-friendly certification for exports.
Strengthening export standards for global markets (EU, US, Japan).
Conserving endangered indigenous species and spawning grounds to maintain biodiversity.

✅ Key Statistics at a Glance (Approx. 2023–24)

Parameter	Figure
Total fish production	~4.8 million MT
Inland fisheries share	~82%
Marine fisheries share	~18%
Fisheries share in GDP	~4.5%
Fisheries share in agri-GDP	~23%
People dependent on fisheries	~20 million
Shrimp/prawn farm area	~214,000 ha
Open water area	~4 million ha
Coastal zone	480 km coastline + EEZ

✅ Final Note

Bangladesh’s fisheries are a story of natural abundance, rural livelihoods, export earnings — and untapped opportunities. For a food-secure, nutrition-secure future, smart investments, sustainable management, and stronger enforcement of conservation rules will be crucial.

✅ Mineral Resources of Bangladesh: Updated Status & Future Prospects (2025)

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury

1️⃣ Crude Oil

Bangladesh’s only oilfield is at Haripur, discovered in 1986 in the Sylhet district near the eastern hills. It remains Bangladesh’s single onshore crude oil discovery to date.

Estimated reserves: ~40 million barrels
Recoverable reserves: ~6 million barrels
Due to small size and technical challenges, Haripur’s full development has not progressed significantly.

Bangladesh’s domestic crude covers only a fraction of national demand. The country imports ~1.3 million metric tons of crude oil each year, which is refined at the Eastern Refinery Limited (ERL) in Chittagong. Another 2.7–3 million metric tons of refined petroleum products are directly imported for transport, industry, agriculture, and backup power.

Key source: BPC Annual Reports 2023–2024

2️⃣ Coal: Bangladesh’s Untapped “Black Diamond”

Coal was first discovered in 1959 by the Geological Survey of Pakistan in Dinajpur. Further exploration by the Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB) and international partners revealed five significant coalfields in the northwest region:

Coalfield	District	Depth (m)	Estimated Reserve (Million Tons)
Jamalganj	Joypurhat	640–1,158	1,053
Barapukuria	Dinajpur	118–509	~300
Phulbari	Dinajpur	150–250	~572
Khalashpir	Rangpur	257–483	~143
Dighipara	Dinajpur	328–408	~150

Total estimated reserves: ~3.3 billion tons.
Currently developed: Only Barapukuria is under active mining, producing about 1 million tons per year, which fuels the adjacent 250–300 MW coal power plant (Barapukuria Coal Power Plant).

Future development:

Phulbari is planned for open-pit mining. The license transferred to Asia Energy Corporation (GCM Resources) is still subject to local resistance and policy review.
Jamalganj is too deep for conventional mining — exploration of Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is under study. The government is revising CBM policy to allow future extraction.

Imported coal from India, Indonesia, and China remains dominant for brick kilns and small industrial boilers.

3️⃣ White Clay (Kaolin)

White clay, or kaolin, is a key raw material for Bangladesh’s growing ceramics and sanitaryware industry.

Key locations: Netrokona (Bijoypur, Gopalpur), Sherpur (Nalitabari), Chittagong (Haidgaon, Baitul Izzat), and Dinajpur (Maddhyapara, Barapukuria, Dighipara).
Surface deposits are more common in Netrokona and Sherpur; deeper layers exist in Dinajpur.

Bangladesh’s local clay generally needs to be blended with high-grade imported clay to meet export-quality standards for ceramic tiles, porcelain, and sanitary fittings. Domestic consumption has surged due to rapid urban housing growth.

Reference: GSB, Bangladesh Ceramic Manufacturers Association (BCMA)

4️⃣ Glass Sand

Glass sand reserves are vital for producing glass sheets, bottles, tableware, and advanced uses like fiberglass and silicon chips.

Deposit Location	Estimated Reserve (Million Tons)
Barapukuria	90.0
Maddhyapara	17.25
Shahjibazar	1.41
Balijuri	0.64
Chauddagram (Comilla)	0.29
Total	~109.6

Glass sand is mostly fine to medium-grain quartz. While shallow deposits are easier to mine (Balijuri, Shahjibazar), deeper deposits like Maddhyapara and Barapukuria are linked to broader hard rock mining projects.

5️⃣ Limestone

Limestone is the main raw material for Bangladesh’s cement industry — a key sector supporting mega infrastructure projects like bridges and expressways.

Key deposits:

Takerghat, Lalghat, Bangli Bazar (Sylhet/Sunamganj)
Joypurhat (northwest)
Small deposits at Jahanpur & Paranagar (Naogaon)
St. Martin’s Island (minor)

Deposit	Depth (m)	Estimated Reserve (Million Tons)
Takerghat (Sylhet)	Surface	~12–13
Joypurhat	515–541	~100
Paranagar/Jahanpur	~500	~20

Today, the Takerghat quarry still supplies raw limestone to Chhatak Cement Factory, but high-grade cement producers mostly rely on imported clinker.

6️⃣ Heavy Mineral Beach Sands

The coastal belt and offshore islands contain valuable heavy minerals:

Ilmenite, rutile, and leucoxene (titanium minerals used for pigments, welding rods, aerospace parts).
Zircon, monazite (source of zirconium, rare earth elements, and nuclear fuel).
Garnet, kyanite, magnetite (abrasives, refractory bricks).

Key beaches: Cox’s Bazar, Teknaf, Moheshkhali, Kutubdia, Kuakata, Nijhum Dwip, Monpura.

Approximate combined reserves exceed 1.7 million tons of heavy minerals. Exploration licenses for large-scale extraction are under consideration with international investors.

7️⃣ Peat

Peat is an alternative local fuel in swampy delta regions:

Major deposits: Gopalganj, Faridpur, Khulna, Sunamganj
Total dry peat reserves: ~170 million tons

Peat could be used for household fuel and small power plants. Pilot briquetting projects by Petrobangla have faced technical and economic barriers — high moisture and extraction cost remain major obstacles.

8️⃣ Hard Rock

Bangladesh has limited hard rock deposits compared to India or Nepal, but Maddhyapara Hard Rock Mine in Dinajpur remains a significant source of granite for:

Roads, highways, and railway beds
Riverbank protection
Heavy construction
Mosaic stones

Annual recoverable capacity: 1.65 million tons. The mine extends into Rangpur and parts of Parbatipur.

9️⃣ Gravel Deposits

Natural river-borne gravels are found mainly in:

Northern piedmont (Tetulia, Lalmonirhat, Panchagarh)
Sylhet, Chittagong Hill Tracts

These gravels are used for roads, bridges, railway beds, river training, and flood control. Estimated total reserve: ~10 million cubic meters.

🔑 Other Key Nonmetallic & Metallic Prospects

Metallic traces: GSB’s surveys in the northwest found minor copper, lead, and zinc traces (chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite) — not yet commercially viable.
Construction sand: Widely available in riverbeds nationwide.
Brick clay: Abundant in the Dhaka basin — key for brick kilns feeding the construction boom.

📌 Updated Reserve Table (Approx.)

Mineral	Estimated Reserve	Key Districts
Coal	3.3 billion tons	Dinajpur, Joypurhat, Rangpur
Oil	40 million barrels	Sylhet
Peat	~170 million tons	Faridpur, Khulna, Gopalganj
Limestone	~140 million tons	Sylhet, Joypurhat, Naogaon
Glass sand	~110 million tons	Sylhet, Comilla, Dinajpur
White clay	Not fully quantified	Netrokona, Dinajpur
Hard rock	115 million tons	Dinajpur
Gravel	~10 million cubic meters	North Bengal, Sylhet
Beach sand minerals	1.7+ million tons	Coastal belt

✅ Outlook & Policy Needs

To unlock its mineral potential, Bangladesh must:

Modernize mining laws for large-scale open-pit and deep mining.
Incentivize CBM extraction from deep coal seams like Jamalganj.
Expand environmentally sound mining with local benefit sharing.
Invest in processing plants for ceramic clay and glass sand.
Build robust export value chains for heavy mineral sands.

📚 References

Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB) Annual Reports 2022–2024.
Petrobangla Annual Data, 2024.
BPC and BAPEX reports, 2023.
Asian Mining Year Book, 7th Ed.
International Energy Agency Southeast Asia Outlook, 2023.
Bangladesh Ministry of Power, Energy & Mineral Resources (MPMR) 2024 policy briefs.

📌 Bangladesh Mineral & Energy Resources: Updated Overview with References

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury

1️⃣ Introduction

Bangladesh sits atop the greater Bengal Basin, one of the largest sedimentary basins in the world (Khan & Muminullah, 1988). Its surface geology is covered by:

80% Holocene deposits — young, unconsolidated sand, silt, and clay (Alam et al., 2003).
12% Tertiary folded sedimentary rocks, mainly in the eastern hilly regions and Sylhet.
8% uplifted Pleistocene terraces, prominent in Madhupur and Barind tracts.

Subsurface explorations have revealed older Palaeocene, Mesozoic, and Precambrian basement rocks (Imam, 2013). These formations hold key mineral deposits: natural gas, coal, limestone, hard rock, white clay, glass sand, and heavy mineral sands (Bangladesh Bureau of Mines & Petrobangla, 2022).

Key reference: Geology of Bangladesh — Alam, M., Alam, M.M., Curray, J.R., et al., 2003.

✅ 2️⃣ Role of Natural Gas

Natural gas is Bangladesh’s dominant domestic energy source, supplying ~70–75% of commercial energy needs (BPDB Annual Report, 2023). It fuels:

60%+ of electricity generation.
85% of fertilizer production (BAPEX, 2022).
Major industrial heating.
~15% of household energy.

Gas is cheaper than imported oil and critical for GDP growth (World Bank, 2023).

📊 Natural Gas Snapshot (2024–25)

Indicator	Figure	Source
Total discovered fields	28	BAPEX 2023
Offshore fields	2	Petrobangla 2023
Active fields	20	Petrobangla
Gas wells	~104	EMRD 2023
Proven recoverable reserves	~20.7 TCF	Hydrocarbon Unit
Probable reserves	~6.4 TCF	EMRD
Daily production	~2,400–2,500 MMCFD	Petrobangla
Demand	~3,000 MMCFD	BPDB
LNG imports (2024)	~1,000 MMCFD	Summit LNG, Excelerate

📌 Production Trends & Shortages

Bangladesh’s production peaked at ~2,500 MMCFD in 2023. However, demand often exceeds supply by 500–700 MMCFD, requiring LNG imports (IEA Southeast Asia Outlook 2023). Without new discoveries, proven reserves could decline sharply after 2026 (IMF Country Report, 2023).

Chevron remains the top producer (~55% of total output). Major fields: Bibiyana, Titas, Habiganj, Kailashtila.

Key source: Bangladesh Energy Sector Review, World Bank, 2022.

🔍 3️⃣ Historical Background

Gas exploration began under British India:

1908: Indian Petroleum Prospecting Company drilled Sitakunda (GSP, 2022).
1955–60: PPL (Pakistan Petroleum Ltd) discovered Sylhet, Chhatak.
1960s: Shell discovered Titas, Habiganj, Rashidpur.
Post-independence, Shell’s fields transferred to Petrobangla subsidiaries (Imam, 2013).

🔑 4️⃣ Current Gas Sector Challenges

Depletion: Reserves may last 8–12 more years (ADB 2022).
Overproduction: Bibiyana’s expansion raises sustainability concerns.
Import dependency: LNG imports are now vital — adding billions to the import bill (IEA, 2023).

✅ 5️⃣ Other Petroleum Products

Metric	Volume	Source
Crude oil imports	~1.3 million MT/year	BPC Annual Report
Refined products	~2.7 million MT/year	BPC
Largest refinery	ERL, 1.5 million MT/year	Eastern Refinery Ltd.
Main users	Transport, industry	BPC

🚙 6️⃣ Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

Introduced in 1997 to save foreign exchange and reduce urban air pollution (DOE 2022).

Metric	Figure	Source
CNG stations	587	Petrobangla 2023
Conversion workshops	180	DOE
CNG vehicles	~213,000	BRTA Annual Report
% of city buses/minibuses	~75%	BRTA

🏠 7️⃣ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

LPG is vital for remote areas without pipelines (BPC, 2022).

Metric	Volume
Total supply	~95,000 MT/year
Public sector	~22,500 MT
Private sector	~73,000 MT
Estimated demand	~200,000 MT/year

Key source: Bangladesh Energy & Mineral Resources Division Annual Report, 2022.

📈 8️⃣ How the Gas Crisis is Managed

New offshore exploration rounds launched (Block DS-12, DS-16).
Deep-sea survey with foreign partners (ONCG Videsh, Santos).
LNG imports doubled from 500 MMCFD (2018) to ~1,000 MMCFD (2024).
Cross-border hydro imports: Bangladesh imports 1,160 MW from India (BPDB, 2024) and eyes new projects with Nepal/Bhutan.

✅ 9️⃣ Energy Security Outlook

Target	Status (2024)	Vision (2030)
Installed capacity	25,700 MW	40,000 MW
Gas share in power	~50%	40–50%
LNG import share	~20%	30%
Renewable share	~4%	10–12%
Peak demand	19,000 MW	34,000 MW
Cross-border trade	1,160 MW	2,500+ MW

✅ 10️⃣ Conclusion

Bangladesh’s gas and mineral sectors are vital for its industrial backbone. As domestic gas depletes, a balanced strategy is needed:

Boost onshore & offshore exploration,
Expand LNG import capacity,
Develop large renewables and nuclear,
Strengthen cross-border energy trade.

Responsible policy, robust investment, and smarter management will help ensure energy security and economic growth for decades to come.

📚 Key References

Alam, M. et al. (2003). Geology of Bangladesh. Elsevier.
BPDB Annual Report, 2023.
BAPEX Annual Report, 2022.
Petrobangla Data Book, 2023.
World Bank. Bangladesh Energy Sector Review, 2022.
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Country Diagnostic Report, 2022.
International Energy Agency (IEA). Southeast Asia Energy Outlook, 2023.
Energy & Mineral Resources Division (EMRD) Reports, GoB, 2023.
IMF Country Report, 2023.
Department of Explosives (DOE) Report, 2022.
Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation (BPC) Annual Reports.

📌 Bangladesh Mineral & Energy Resources: In-Depth Overview with References

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury

1️⃣ Introduction: Bangladesh’s Unique Geology

Bangladesh’s entire geological identity is rooted in the Bengal Basin — one of the largest and youngest sedimentary basins on earth. Stretching across Bangladesh and parts of India and Myanmar, this basin acts as a massive natural storehouse for various mineral resources. The country’s land surface can be divided into three geological zones:

About 80% is covered by Holocene deposits — these are loose, unconsolidated sands, silts, and clay formed in the last 10,000 years by the mighty Ganges-Brahmaputra river system. These fertile sediments are great for agriculture but less so for hard rock mining.
12% consists of Tertiary folded sedimentary rocks, mainly in the north and eastern hill tracts like Sylhet and the Chittagong Hill Tracts — regions with folded anticlines that hold trapped gas and oil.
The remaining 8% is the Pleistocene terraces, older uplifted land like the Barind Tract and Madhupur Tract that preserve ancient soils, sometimes used for brick clay and minor minerals.

Deep below the sediments lie even older Precambrian basement rocks, proven through boreholes in the northwest (Dinajpur, Rangpur) — these store coal seams and potential hard rock deposits.

📚 Key reading: Geology of Bangladesh by Alam et al., 2003

2️⃣ Why Minerals Still Matter for Bangladesh’s Economy

For any developing country, secure access to mineral resources is a cornerstone for growth. Minerals power the cement we build with, the roads we drive on, the fertilizers that feed our fields, and the fuels that light our homes and industries. For Bangladesh, the natural gas reserves have been the single largest energy backbone for decades. Other minerals like limestone, clay, glass sand, coal, and beach mineral sands provide opportunities for cement, ceramics, and construction material.

However, in reality, the full mineral base is modest compared to large resource economies. Hence, Bangladesh must carefully manage its reserves to balance extraction, environmental sustainability, and long-term energy security. Mismanagement or over-extraction could lead to energy crises that hamper industrial progress and everyday life.

✅ 3️⃣ Natural Gas: The Workhorse of Bangladesh’s Energy

Natural gas is the dominant player — without it, Bangladesh’s lights, industries, and fertilizer plants would go dark. Natural gas meets 70–75% of Bangladesh’s commercial energy needs. Over 60% of electricity is gas-fired, and almost all fertilizer factories rely on gas feedstock. Compared to expensive imported oil, domestic gas is affordable — a crucial factor for a developing economy trying to keep costs low and export goods competitively.

Gas is piped across the country via the national transmission network, feeding power plants, heavy industry, city households, and even CNG filling stations for vehicles.

📊 Current Gas Numbers in Perspective

As of 2024–25:

Bangladesh has discovered 28 gas fields, with two offshore.
About 20 are actively producing.
The country’s total proven recoverable reserves are estimated at ~20.7 trillion cubic feet (TCF) — plus 6.4 TCF in probable reserves.
To date, over 16 TCF has already been extracted, meaning nearly two-thirds of the original reserves have been used.
The daily average output is about 2,400–2,500 MMCFD (million cubic feet per day).
But demand is closer to 3,000 MMCFD — leaving a persistent shortfall of ~500–700 MMCFD.

To fill the gap, Bangladesh now imports costly LNG — liquefied natural gas shipped in from abroad, regasified at coastal terminals in Moheshkhali and Meghnaghat.

🔍 4️⃣ How Did the Gas Sector Emerge?

Bangladesh’s modern gas era has deep roots. Exploration began under British colonial rule:

In 1908, the first well was drilled at Sitakunda — but without success.
Serious finds only came in the 1950s when Pakistan Petroleum Ltd. (PPL) struck gas in Sylhet and Chhatak.
By the 1960s, Shell, the Anglo-Dutch oil major, discovered major fields — Titas, Habiganj, Rashidpur, Bakhrabad. Titas remains one of the largest fields to this day.
The gas was first used to fuel local fertilizer plants (like Fenchuganj) and cement factories (like Chhatak Cement).
After independence in 1971, the state companies took over Shell’s assets — this formed today’s Petrobangla and BAPEX, the national gas champions.

The early focus on domestic gas, instead of imported oil, gave Bangladesh an economic advantage that continues today.

✅ 5️⃣ The Emerging Crisis: Reserves Running Out

The big challenge now is depletion. Without significant new finds, proven reserves could run out in 8–12 years, experts warn (ADB 2022, World Bank 2022). Chevron’s Bibiyana field — Bangladesh’s largest — is producing over half of the daily supply, but high production could cause faster depletion, as happened with the offshore Sangu field, which dried up earlier than expected.

Meanwhile, the country’s rising population, new industries, and bigger cities are pushing gas demand up by 8–10% every year. This means Bangladesh must:

Speed up new exploration (onshore and offshore)
Tap deep-sea gas potential in the Bay of Bengal
Expand LNG import capacity — despite the high foreign exchange cost

Reference: Southeast Asia Energy Outlook, IEA 2023.

✅ 6️⃣ Petroleum Products & Oil Refining

Bangladesh still imports about 1.3 million metric tons of crude oil yearly — mostly refined at the Eastern Refinery Limited (ERL) in Chittagong. But this only meets part of the demand.

So, Bangladesh also imports ~2.7 million metric tons of refined oil products directly: diesel, furnace oil, petrol. These fuels power the transport sector (buses, trucks), irrigation pumps, and backup generators.

The dependence on oil imports strains foreign currency reserves — especially when global oil prices spike. Expanding domestic refining and storage capacity is a major policy goal.

🚙 7️⃣ CNG: Greener Urban Transport

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a big success story. Launched in the late 90s, the CNG program helped:

Cut oil imports.
Reduce urban smog in Dhaka.
Save millions in foreign exchange.

Today:

Bangladesh has over 587 CNG refueling stations.
About 213,000 vehicles, including buses and minibuses, run on CNG.
Over 75% of Dhaka’s buses use CNG — making urban transport cleaner.

Reference: Department of Explosives, BRTA Annual Report.

🏠 8️⃣ LPG: A Rural Solution

For rural or remote households far from gas pipelines, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a vital alternative. It reduces dependence on imported kerosene or biomass fuel.

Today, Bangladesh consumes about 95,000 metric tons of LPG each year — mostly supplied by private companies like Bashundhara and Beximco. But the potential market is more than 200,000 metric tons, if supply chains and affordability can improve.

To support adoption, the government has cut duties on stoves and cylinders to make LPG cheaper.

Reference: Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation Annual Report.

✅ 9️⃣ Future Outlook: Energy Security at a Crossroads

Bangladesh’s next decade will shape whether it can secure enough affordable energy to keep industries growing and families supplied.

Key parts of the roadmap:

Ramp up exploration of untapped onshore and deep-sea blocks.
Expand LNG imports through new terminals (Summit, Excelerate).
Diversify with more coal, nuclear, and renewables.
Expand cross-border power trade — today, 1,160 MW comes from India; future deals with Nepal and Bhutan could add clean hydro to the mix.
Scale up offshore wind and solar parks to cut carbon emissions and import costs.

✅ 10️⃣ Final Reflection

Bangladesh’s gas era has powered decades of progress. But the next chapter must be written with bold investment, smart policy, and stronger regional cooperation. Minerals, hydrocarbons, and renewables — all must work together to keep the lights on and industries growing for the next generation.

📚 Core References

Alam et al., Geology of Bangladesh (Elsevier, 2003)
Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation Annual Reports, 2023–2024
Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) Annual Reports
BAPEX & Petrobangla Data Book, 2023
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Country Diagnostics, 2022
IEA Southeast Asia Outlook, 2023
World Bank, Bangladesh Energy Sector Review, 2022
Department of Explosives Reports, 2022–2023
BRTA Annual Transport Report, 2022