Resource and Environmental Economics

Monday, July 7, 2025

📌 Bangladesh Fisheries Sector: Resources, Production & Institutional Framework

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury, PhD

✅ 1️⃣ Introduction

Bangladesh, a lower riparian South Asian country crisscrossed by hundreds of rivers and floodplains, has long relied on its inland and marine waters for food security, livelihoods, and export earnings. Fish and shrimp are the second-largest agricultural export after ready-made garments. The fisheries sector supplies about 60% of animal protein consumed by Bangladeshis and employs ~11% of the national workforce directly or indirectly.

Over the past two decades, Bangladesh has sustained impressive growth in aquaculture and capture fisheries:

The sector contributes ~4.5% to GDP and ~23% to agricultural GDP (Bangladesh Economic Review, 2023).
The sector’s annual growth rate has averaged 5–7%, outperforming crops and livestock.
Bangladesh has become the 5th largest aquaculture producer globally (FAO, 2022).

The country’s extensive natural water bodies — rivers, beels, haors, baors, ponds, floodplains, and a 480 km coastline with a 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) — provide vast fishery potential.

✅ 2️⃣ Sources of Revenue

The Department of Fisheries (DoF) generates revenue entirely through non-tax revenues (NTR), including:

Leasing public water bodies,
Licensing fishers and traders,
Fees from fish landing centers,
Royalties from processing plants and export clearances.

📊 Example Table: Non-Tax Revenue by DoF (FY 2019–2024)

Year	Non-Tax Revenue (Million BDT)
2019	1,240
2020	1,285
2021	1,310
2022	1,450
2023	1,600
2024	1,750 (est.)

✅ 3️⃣ Fish Marketing, Export & Import

Bangladesh is a major shrimp exporter.

Farmed shrimp (black tiger shrimp Bagda and freshwater prawn Golda) are the largest fishery export.
Seafood exports contribute ~2.5% of total export earnings.
82 processing plants, all HACCP-certified, export to the EU, USA, Japan, Russia, Korea, China, India, and Middle Eastern markets.

Bangladesh faced export challenges when the EU detected Nitrofuran metabolites in freshwater prawn shipments in 2009. A six-month voluntary ban and stricter residue monitoring followed. Collaborative measures with the EU, donors, and international experts helped resolve the crisis — Bangladesh remains compliant with EU food safety requirements.

Key export hubs: Chattogram and Mongla seaports, Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport, and five land-border points for exports to India.

Fishing equipment imports: Since the 1970s, Bangladesh has imported trawlers, marine engines, synthetic twine, ice plants, cold storage trucks, and training vessels from countries like Denmark, Japan, USSR, Norway, and India.

✅ 4️⃣ Aquaculture & Fish Farming Practices

4.1 Pond Aquaculture

Pond culture is the backbone of inland aquaculture:

Covers ~3.5 lakh hectares (~7.4% of inland water).
Contributes nearly 50% of inland fish production (~1.2 million MT).
Composite carp polyculture yields ~3,400 kg/ha; intensive pangas farming in Mymensingh yields up to 60+ tons/ha.

4.2 Paddy Field Aquaculture

Bangladesh’s 8 million ha of paddy fields double as seasonal fish habitats. ~2.8 million ha of seasonal floodplains retain water for 4–5 months — ideal for integrated rice-fish culture.

4.3 Borrow-Pit & Canal (Khal) Culture

Flood Control, Drainage & Irrigation (FCDI) projects have rehabilitated borrow-pits and khals for community-based fish farming.

4.4 Baor (Oxbow Lake) Culture

There are ~600 baors covering ~5,500 ha, mostly in Jessore and Kushtia. Community co-management, fingerling stocking, and improved feeding have boosted baor yields from 80 kg/ha to ~750 kg/ha.

4.5 Cage Culture

Cage culture for tilapia and pangas has gained ground in rivers and canals — especially in Chandpur, Laxmipur, Barishal, and Mymensingh. Over 6,000 cages produced ~6,750 MT fish in 2023.

4.6 Pen Culture

Pens built with bamboo or netting rear carp and tilapia in floodplains and canals. Pen sizes vary from 0.5 to several hectares.

4.7 Integrated Fish Farming

Rice–fish–duck systems are increasingly popular. BFRI research shows 500 Khaki Campbell ducks on a 1-ha pond can yield 4.5 tons/ha of carp, while also producing eggs and meat. Traditional sump ponds in paddy fields enhance fish survival during dry seasons.

✅ 5️⃣ Shrimp Culture

Shrimp farming districts: Bagerhat, Satkhira, Pirojpur, Khulna, Cox’s Bazar, Chattogram.

Coastal ‘gher’ enclosures trap tidal water for Bagda culture.
Farmers are moving towards semi-intensive systems with improved feed and disease control.

Environmental issues include:

Mangrove destruction,
Bycatch of non-target larvae during post-larvae (PL) collection,
Disease outbreaks (e.g., White Spot Syndrome).

✅ 6️⃣ Institutional Framework

Key institutions:

Department of Fisheries (DoF): Main policy & management authority with 6 divisional, 64 district, 497 upazila offices, 118 hatcheries, and 4 training centers.
Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI): Conducts R&D and adaptive research.
BFDC (Bangladesh Fisheries Development Corporation): Oversees commercial harvesting, fish harbors, ice plants.
Bangladesh Jatiya Motshyajibi Samabaya Samity (BJMSS): Fisher cooperative for production, processing.
Export Promotion Bureau (EPB) & Bangladesh Frozen Foods Exporters Association (BFFEA): Manage export facilitation.
Universities (BAU Mymensingh, Chattogram, Khulna, Dhaka, Rajshahi): Provide higher fisheries education.
NGOs & donors: DFID, JICA, Danida, WorldFish, CIRDAP support capacity building.
Banks & microfinance: Provide loans to small farmers.

✅ 7️⃣ Fish Processing Sector

Processing hubs:

BFDC: Operates plants in Cox’s Bazar, Chattogram, Mongla. Facilities include freezing, canning, fishmeal, and shark liver oil units.
BSFIC: Factories in Khulna & Chattogram.
BJMSS: Owns export-oriented freezing units.
Private sector: 80+ modern HACCP-certified plants.
Traditional drying: Small fishers sun-dry ~3,000 tons/year on Dubla Island alone.

✅ 8️⃣ Applied Research, Education & Training

Research priorities are coordinated by BARC, DoF, BFRI, universities.
Degree programs offered at BAU, Chattogram, Khulna, Dhaka, Rajshahi.
Training: Marine Fisheries Academy, Fisheries Training Institutes (Savar, Chandpur, Raipur, Faridpur), Youth Training Centers.
International donors (World Bank, DFID, Danida, NORAD) support capacity building.

✅ 9️⃣ Trends & Challenges

Key concerns:

Overfishing, habitat degradation.
Disease outbreaks in shrimp.
Climate change impacts on spawning & migration.
Improving food safety to meet export standards.

✅ 🔍 10️⃣ Recommendations

✔ Bring underused water bodies under modern culture.
✔ Boost employment through value-added fish processing.
✔ Strengthen co-management & biodiversity conservation.
✔ Develop eco-friendly landing & cold chain infrastructure.
✔ Link research to farmers with strong extension.
✔ Provide accessible credit for smallholders.
✔ Expand sustainable production for food security & exports.

📌 Bangladesh Fisheries Sector: Updated Overview, Resources & Production (2025)

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury

✅ 1️⃣ Introduction

Bangladesh is a riverine South Asian nation, located between latitudes 20°34′–26°39′ N and longitudes 80°00′–90°41′ E. Its unique deltaic landscape, with thousands of rivers, floodplains, and coastal wetlands, has shaped the country’s socio-economic structure — where fisheries play a vital role in nutrition, livelihoods, exports, and biodiversity conservation.

Fish and shrimp are Bangladesh’s second-most valuable agricultural commodities, providing 60% of national animal protein intake and securing the livelihoods of millions of rural households. The sector’s major goals are:

To ensure food and nutrition security,
Reduce rural poverty through employment and income generation,
Expand exports of fish, shrimp, and prawn,
Protect aquatic biodiversity and maintain the ecological balance of inland and coastal waters.

Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh’s fisheries have grown remarkably:

In 2023–24, fisheries contribute ~4.5% to national GDP and ~23% to the agricultural GDP (Bangladesh Economic Review, 2024).
Over 11% of Bangladeshis — more than 20 million people — are directly or indirectly employed in fishing, farming, processing, transport, or export.

The sector’s average annual growth rate remains strong at 5–7%, the highest among Bangladesh’s agricultural subsectors. The total fish production surpassed 4.8 million metric tons in 2023 — an increase of nearly 80% since 2000.

Bangladesh’s inland and coastal water resources are vast:

40.2 lakh hectares of open inland waters: rivers (8.5 lakh ha), the Sundarbans mangroves (1.8 lakh ha), beels (1.1 lakh ha), floodplains (28.3 lakh ha), and the Kaptai reservoir (68,800 ha).
About 1.58 million hectares of perennial inland water and an additional 2.8 million hectares of seasonal monsoon-flooded land suitable for seasonal fish culture.
480 km coastline plus a 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the Bay of Bengal.

Beels, the shallow natural wetlands, are some of the most productive inland fish habitats, with major examples like Chalan Beel, Arial Beel, Dekhar Beel, and Gopalganj-Khulna Beel. These seasonal floodplain wetlands support the life cycle of many native fish and prawn species.

✅ 2️⃣ Fishery Resources

🔹 2.1 Inland Fisheries

Bangladesh’s inland fishery resources are among the largest and richest in the world. They contribute over 80–82% of total fish production.

Inland fisheries are divided into:
1️⃣ Open water fisheries: Rivers, estuaries, haors, baors (oxbow lakes), and beels connected to river systems.
2️⃣ Closed water fisheries: Ponds, tanks, dighis, seasonal floodplains, and shrimp/prawn farms.

🔹 Key resources:

Rivers & estuaries: Major spawning grounds for carp species like Rui, Catla, Mrigal.
- Important spawning sites:
  - Halda River (the only pure Indian carp river breeding ground in South Asia),
  - Arial Khan,
  - Garai, Ganges, Jamuna, Old Brahmaputra.
Baors: Ox-bow lakes, mostly in Jessore and Kushtia (e.g., Baluhar, Joydia).
Haors/Beels: Sylhet-Mymensingh basin has the country’s largest seasonal wetlands — e.g., Kakaluki Haor (36,437 ha), Tangua Haor (25,506 ha).

🔹 Closed waters:

Ponds/tanks: Spread nationwide — many originally dug by zamindars, kings, and feudal lords centuries ago.
Many derelict tanks have been revitalized for modern aquaculture.
Shrimp/prawn farms: Coastal and brackish water zones are key areas.

Key figure: Though closed water covers only 15% of inland water areas, it produces over 50% of inland fish output due to the higher productivity of controlled aquaculture.

🔹 2.2 Marine Fisheries

Bangladesh’s marine zone covers:

A continental shelf area of ~67,000 sq. km.
Territorial waters of about 1 million hectares.
An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles (320 km) into the Bay of Bengal.

The continental shelf (shallow waters up to 200 meters deep) supports demersal and pelagic fisheries. Bangladesh’s marine waters are rich in shrimp, Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha), pomfret, Bombay duck, and mackerel. But only 18% of the country’s total fish output comes from marine capture fisheries — with huge potential still untapped due to limited deep-sea fleet and technology.

✅ 3️⃣ Production Trends

Since the early 1980s, Bangladesh has made major progress in:

Expanding brackish water aquaculture, especially black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon).
Shrimp culture area rose from 140,000 ha in 1980 to ~214,000 ha by 2020–2023.
Inland pond fish farming (carp polyculture) has modernized with improved broodstock management and hatchery operations.

Recent policy shifts emphasize:

Sustainable aquaculture intensification,
Improved hatcheries and fry supply,
Conservation of wild stocks (e.g., bans during Hilsa breeding),
Community-based co-management of open water bodies.

Key production data:

In 2008–09, total fish production was 2.7 million MT.
By 2010–11, this rose to 3.06 million MT.
By 2023, total output is estimated to have crossed 4.8 million MT, with:
- ~82% inland fish (aquaculture + capture)
- ~18% marine fish.

Exports: Shrimp remains Bangladesh’s second-largest agricultural export, earning about USD 400–500 million annually, mainly from black tiger shrimp and freshwater prawns.

✅ 4️⃣ Future Priorities & Vision

Bangladesh’s fisheries roadmap aims for:

Raising inland aquaculture productivity with better feed, seed, disease management.
Expanding community-based open water management to boost sustainable catch from rivers, beels, haors.
Tapping unexploited marine resources through modern trawlers, deep-sea fleet investment, and eco-friendly certification for exports.
Strengthening export standards for global markets (EU, US, Japan).
Conserving endangered indigenous species and spawning grounds to maintain biodiversity.

✅ Key Statistics at a Glance (Approx. 2023–24)

Parameter	Figure
Total fish production	~4.8 million MT
Inland fisheries share	~82%
Marine fisheries share	~18%
Fisheries share in GDP	~4.5%
Fisheries share in agri-GDP	~23%
People dependent on fisheries	~20 million
Shrimp/prawn farm area	~214,000 ha
Open water area	~4 million ha
Coastal zone	480 km coastline + EEZ

✅ Final Note

Bangladesh’s fisheries are a story of natural abundance, rural livelihoods, export earnings — and untapped opportunities. For a food-secure, nutrition-secure future, smart investments, sustainable management, and stronger enforcement of conservation rules will be crucial.

✅ Mineral Resources of Bangladesh: Updated Status & Future Prospects (2025)

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury

1️⃣ Crude Oil

Bangladesh’s only oilfield is at Haripur, discovered in 1986 in the Sylhet district near the eastern hills. It remains Bangladesh’s single onshore crude oil discovery to date.

Estimated reserves: ~40 million barrels
Recoverable reserves: ~6 million barrels
Due to small size and technical challenges, Haripur’s full development has not progressed significantly.

Bangladesh’s domestic crude covers only a fraction of national demand. The country imports ~1.3 million metric tons of crude oil each year, which is refined at the Eastern Refinery Limited (ERL) in Chittagong. Another 2.7–3 million metric tons of refined petroleum products are directly imported for transport, industry, agriculture, and backup power.

Key source: BPC Annual Reports 2023–2024

2️⃣ Coal: Bangladesh’s Untapped “Black Diamond”

Coal was first discovered in 1959 by the Geological Survey of Pakistan in Dinajpur. Further exploration by the Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB) and international partners revealed five significant coalfields in the northwest region:

Coalfield	District	Depth (m)	Estimated Reserve (Million Tons)
Jamalganj	Joypurhat	640–1,158	1,053
Barapukuria	Dinajpur	118–509	~300
Phulbari	Dinajpur	150–250	~572
Khalashpir	Rangpur	257–483	~143
Dighipara	Dinajpur	328–408	~150

Total estimated reserves: ~3.3 billion tons.
Currently developed: Only Barapukuria is under active mining, producing about 1 million tons per year, which fuels the adjacent 250–300 MW coal power plant (Barapukuria Coal Power Plant).

Future development:

Phulbari is planned for open-pit mining. The license transferred to Asia Energy Corporation (GCM Resources) is still subject to local resistance and policy review.
Jamalganj is too deep for conventional mining — exploration of Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is under study. The government is revising CBM policy to allow future extraction.

Imported coal from India, Indonesia, and China remains dominant for brick kilns and small industrial boilers.

3️⃣ White Clay (Kaolin)

White clay, or kaolin, is a key raw material for Bangladesh’s growing ceramics and sanitaryware industry.

Key locations: Netrokona (Bijoypur, Gopalpur), Sherpur (Nalitabari), Chittagong (Haidgaon, Baitul Izzat), and Dinajpur (Maddhyapara, Barapukuria, Dighipara).
Surface deposits are more common in Netrokona and Sherpur; deeper layers exist in Dinajpur.

Bangladesh’s local clay generally needs to be blended with high-grade imported clay to meet export-quality standards for ceramic tiles, porcelain, and sanitary fittings. Domestic consumption has surged due to rapid urban housing growth.

Reference: GSB, Bangladesh Ceramic Manufacturers Association (BCMA)

4️⃣ Glass Sand

Glass sand reserves are vital for producing glass sheets, bottles, tableware, and advanced uses like fiberglass and silicon chips.

Deposit Location	Estimated Reserve (Million Tons)
Barapukuria	90.0
Maddhyapara	17.25
Shahjibazar	1.41
Balijuri	0.64
Chauddagram (Comilla)	0.29
Total	~109.6

Glass sand is mostly fine to medium-grain quartz. While shallow deposits are easier to mine (Balijuri, Shahjibazar), deeper deposits like Maddhyapara and Barapukuria are linked to broader hard rock mining projects.

5️⃣ Limestone

Limestone is the main raw material for Bangladesh’s cement industry — a key sector supporting mega infrastructure projects like bridges and expressways.

Key deposits:

Takerghat, Lalghat, Bangli Bazar (Sylhet/Sunamganj)
Joypurhat (northwest)
Small deposits at Jahanpur & Paranagar (Naogaon)
St. Martin’s Island (minor)

Deposit	Depth (m)	Estimated Reserve (Million Tons)
Takerghat (Sylhet)	Surface	~12–13
Joypurhat	515–541	~100
Paranagar/Jahanpur	~500	~20

Today, the Takerghat quarry still supplies raw limestone to Chhatak Cement Factory, but high-grade cement producers mostly rely on imported clinker.

6️⃣ Heavy Mineral Beach Sands

The coastal belt and offshore islands contain valuable heavy minerals:

Ilmenite, rutile, and leucoxene (titanium minerals used for pigments, welding rods, aerospace parts).
Zircon, monazite (source of zirconium, rare earth elements, and nuclear fuel).
Garnet, kyanite, magnetite (abrasives, refractory bricks).

Key beaches: Cox’s Bazar, Teknaf, Moheshkhali, Kutubdia, Kuakata, Nijhum Dwip, Monpura.

Approximate combined reserves exceed 1.7 million tons of heavy minerals. Exploration licenses for large-scale extraction are under consideration with international investors.

7️⃣ Peat

Peat is an alternative local fuel in swampy delta regions:

Major deposits: Gopalganj, Faridpur, Khulna, Sunamganj
Total dry peat reserves: ~170 million tons

Peat could be used for household fuel and small power plants. Pilot briquetting projects by Petrobangla have faced technical and economic barriers — high moisture and extraction cost remain major obstacles.

8️⃣ Hard Rock

Bangladesh has limited hard rock deposits compared to India or Nepal, but Maddhyapara Hard Rock Mine in Dinajpur remains a significant source of granite for:

Roads, highways, and railway beds
Riverbank protection
Heavy construction
Mosaic stones

Annual recoverable capacity: 1.65 million tons. The mine extends into Rangpur and parts of Parbatipur.

9️⃣ Gravel Deposits

Natural river-borne gravels are found mainly in:

Northern piedmont (Tetulia, Lalmonirhat, Panchagarh)
Sylhet, Chittagong Hill Tracts

These gravels are used for roads, bridges, railway beds, river training, and flood control. Estimated total reserve: ~10 million cubic meters.

🔑 Other Key Nonmetallic & Metallic Prospects

Metallic traces: GSB’s surveys in the northwest found minor copper, lead, and zinc traces (chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite) — not yet commercially viable.
Construction sand: Widely available in riverbeds nationwide.
Brick clay: Abundant in the Dhaka basin — key for brick kilns feeding the construction boom.

📌 Updated Reserve Table (Approx.)

Mineral	Estimated Reserve	Key Districts
Coal	3.3 billion tons	Dinajpur, Joypurhat, Rangpur
Oil	40 million barrels	Sylhet
Peat	~170 million tons	Faridpur, Khulna, Gopalganj
Limestone	~140 million tons	Sylhet, Joypurhat, Naogaon
Glass sand	~110 million tons	Sylhet, Comilla, Dinajpur
White clay	Not fully quantified	Netrokona, Dinajpur
Hard rock	115 million tons	Dinajpur
Gravel	~10 million cubic meters	North Bengal, Sylhet
Beach sand minerals	1.7+ million tons	Coastal belt

✅ Outlook & Policy Needs

To unlock its mineral potential, Bangladesh must:

Modernize mining laws for large-scale open-pit and deep mining.
Incentivize CBM extraction from deep coal seams like Jamalganj.
Expand environmentally sound mining with local benefit sharing.
Invest in processing plants for ceramic clay and glass sand.
Build robust export value chains for heavy mineral sands.

📚 References

Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB) Annual Reports 2022–2024.
Petrobangla Annual Data, 2024.
BPC and BAPEX reports, 2023.
Asian Mining Year Book, 7th Ed.
International Energy Agency Southeast Asia Outlook, 2023.
Bangladesh Ministry of Power, Energy & Mineral Resources (MPMR) 2024 policy briefs.

📌 Bangladesh Mineral & Energy Resources: Updated Overview with References

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury

1️⃣ Introduction

Bangladesh sits atop the greater Bengal Basin, one of the largest sedimentary basins in the world (Khan & Muminullah, 1988). Its surface geology is covered by:

80% Holocene deposits — young, unconsolidated sand, silt, and clay (Alam et al., 2003).
12% Tertiary folded sedimentary rocks, mainly in the eastern hilly regions and Sylhet.
8% uplifted Pleistocene terraces, prominent in Madhupur and Barind tracts.

Subsurface explorations have revealed older Palaeocene, Mesozoic, and Precambrian basement rocks (Imam, 2013). These formations hold key mineral deposits: natural gas, coal, limestone, hard rock, white clay, glass sand, and heavy mineral sands (Bangladesh Bureau of Mines & Petrobangla, 2022).

Key reference: Geology of Bangladesh — Alam, M., Alam, M.M., Curray, J.R., et al., 2003.

✅ 2️⃣ Role of Natural Gas

Natural gas is Bangladesh’s dominant domestic energy source, supplying ~70–75% of commercial energy needs (BPDB Annual Report, 2023). It fuels:

60%+ of electricity generation.
85% of fertilizer production (BAPEX, 2022).
Major industrial heating.
~15% of household energy.

Gas is cheaper than imported oil and critical for GDP growth (World Bank, 2023).

📊 Natural Gas Snapshot (2024–25)

Indicator	Figure	Source
Total discovered fields	28	BAPEX 2023
Offshore fields	2	Petrobangla 2023
Active fields	20	Petrobangla
Gas wells	~104	EMRD 2023
Proven recoverable reserves	~20.7 TCF	Hydrocarbon Unit
Probable reserves	~6.4 TCF	EMRD
Daily production	~2,400–2,500 MMCFD	Petrobangla
Demand	~3,000 MMCFD	BPDB
LNG imports (2024)	~1,000 MMCFD	Summit LNG, Excelerate

📌 Production Trends & Shortages

Bangladesh’s production peaked at ~2,500 MMCFD in 2023. However, demand often exceeds supply by 500–700 MMCFD, requiring LNG imports (IEA Southeast Asia Outlook 2023). Without new discoveries, proven reserves could decline sharply after 2026 (IMF Country Report, 2023).

Chevron remains the top producer (~55% of total output). Major fields: Bibiyana, Titas, Habiganj, Kailashtila.

Key source: Bangladesh Energy Sector Review, World Bank, 2022.

🔍 3️⃣ Historical Background

Gas exploration began under British India:

1908: Indian Petroleum Prospecting Company drilled Sitakunda (GSP, 2022).
1955–60: PPL (Pakistan Petroleum Ltd) discovered Sylhet, Chhatak.
1960s: Shell discovered Titas, Habiganj, Rashidpur.
Post-independence, Shell’s fields transferred to Petrobangla subsidiaries (Imam, 2013).

🔑 4️⃣ Current Gas Sector Challenges

Depletion: Reserves may last 8–12 more years (ADB 2022).
Overproduction: Bibiyana’s expansion raises sustainability concerns.
Import dependency: LNG imports are now vital — adding billions to the import bill (IEA, 2023).

✅ 5️⃣ Other Petroleum Products

Metric	Volume	Source
Crude oil imports	~1.3 million MT/year	BPC Annual Report
Refined products	~2.7 million MT/year	BPC
Largest refinery	ERL, 1.5 million MT/year	Eastern Refinery Ltd.
Main users	Transport, industry	BPC

🚙 6️⃣ Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

Introduced in 1997 to save foreign exchange and reduce urban air pollution (DOE 2022).

Metric	Figure	Source
CNG stations	587	Petrobangla 2023
Conversion workshops	180	DOE
CNG vehicles	~213,000	BRTA Annual Report
% of city buses/minibuses	~75%	BRTA

🏠 7️⃣ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

LPG is vital for remote areas without pipelines (BPC, 2022).

Metric	Volume
Total supply	~95,000 MT/year
Public sector	~22,500 MT
Private sector	~73,000 MT
Estimated demand	~200,000 MT/year

Key source: Bangladesh Energy & Mineral Resources Division Annual Report, 2022.

📈 8️⃣ How the Gas Crisis is Managed

New offshore exploration rounds launched (Block DS-12, DS-16).
Deep-sea survey with foreign partners (ONCG Videsh, Santos).
LNG imports doubled from 500 MMCFD (2018) to ~1,000 MMCFD (2024).
Cross-border hydro imports: Bangladesh imports 1,160 MW from India (BPDB, 2024) and eyes new projects with Nepal/Bhutan.

✅ 9️⃣ Energy Security Outlook

Target	Status (2024)	Vision (2030)
Installed capacity	25,700 MW	40,000 MW
Gas share in power	~50%	40–50%
LNG import share	~20%	30%
Renewable share	~4%	10–12%
Peak demand	19,000 MW	34,000 MW
Cross-border trade	1,160 MW	2,500+ MW

✅ 10️⃣ Conclusion

Bangladesh’s gas and mineral sectors are vital for its industrial backbone. As domestic gas depletes, a balanced strategy is needed:

Boost onshore & offshore exploration,
Expand LNG import capacity,
Develop large renewables and nuclear,
Strengthen cross-border energy trade.

Responsible policy, robust investment, and smarter management will help ensure energy security and economic growth for decades to come.

📚 Key References

Alam, M. et al. (2003). Geology of Bangladesh. Elsevier.
BPDB Annual Report, 2023.
BAPEX Annual Report, 2022.
Petrobangla Data Book, 2023.
World Bank. Bangladesh Energy Sector Review, 2022.
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Country Diagnostic Report, 2022.
International Energy Agency (IEA). Southeast Asia Energy Outlook, 2023.
Energy & Mineral Resources Division (EMRD) Reports, GoB, 2023.
IMF Country Report, 2023.
Department of Explosives (DOE) Report, 2022.
Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation (BPC) Annual Reports.

📌 Bangladesh Mineral & Energy Resources: In-Depth Overview with References

Writer: Niaz Murshed Chowdhury

1️⃣ Introduction: Bangladesh’s Unique Geology

Bangladesh’s entire geological identity is rooted in the Bengal Basin — one of the largest and youngest sedimentary basins on earth. Stretching across Bangladesh and parts of India and Myanmar, this basin acts as a massive natural storehouse for various mineral resources. The country’s land surface can be divided into three geological zones:

About 80% is covered by Holocene deposits — these are loose, unconsolidated sands, silts, and clay formed in the last 10,000 years by the mighty Ganges-Brahmaputra river system. These fertile sediments are great for agriculture but less so for hard rock mining.
12% consists of Tertiary folded sedimentary rocks, mainly in the north and eastern hill tracts like Sylhet and the Chittagong Hill Tracts — regions with folded anticlines that hold trapped gas and oil.
The remaining 8% is the Pleistocene terraces, older uplifted land like the Barind Tract and Madhupur Tract that preserve ancient soils, sometimes used for brick clay and minor minerals.

Deep below the sediments lie even older Precambrian basement rocks, proven through boreholes in the northwest (Dinajpur, Rangpur) — these store coal seams and potential hard rock deposits.

📚 Key reading: Geology of Bangladesh by Alam et al., 2003

2️⃣ Why Minerals Still Matter for Bangladesh’s Economy

For any developing country, secure access to mineral resources is a cornerstone for growth. Minerals power the cement we build with, the roads we drive on, the fertilizers that feed our fields, and the fuels that light our homes and industries. For Bangladesh, the natural gas reserves have been the single largest energy backbone for decades. Other minerals like limestone, clay, glass sand, coal, and beach mineral sands provide opportunities for cement, ceramics, and construction material.

However, in reality, the full mineral base is modest compared to large resource economies. Hence, Bangladesh must carefully manage its reserves to balance extraction, environmental sustainability, and long-term energy security. Mismanagement or over-extraction could lead to energy crises that hamper industrial progress and everyday life.

✅ 3️⃣ Natural Gas: The Workhorse of Bangladesh’s Energy

Natural gas is the dominant player — without it, Bangladesh’s lights, industries, and fertilizer plants would go dark. Natural gas meets 70–75% of Bangladesh’s commercial energy needs. Over 60% of electricity is gas-fired, and almost all fertilizer factories rely on gas feedstock. Compared to expensive imported oil, domestic gas is affordable — a crucial factor for a developing economy trying to keep costs low and export goods competitively.

Gas is piped across the country via the national transmission network, feeding power plants, heavy industry, city households, and even CNG filling stations for vehicles.

📊 Current Gas Numbers in Perspective

As of 2024–25:

Bangladesh has discovered 28 gas fields, with two offshore.
About 20 are actively producing.
The country’s total proven recoverable reserves are estimated at ~20.7 trillion cubic feet (TCF) — plus 6.4 TCF in probable reserves.
To date, over 16 TCF has already been extracted, meaning nearly two-thirds of the original reserves have been used.
The daily average output is about 2,400–2,500 MMCFD (million cubic feet per day).
But demand is closer to 3,000 MMCFD — leaving a persistent shortfall of ~500–700 MMCFD.

To fill the gap, Bangladesh now imports costly LNG — liquefied natural gas shipped in from abroad, regasified at coastal terminals in Moheshkhali and Meghnaghat.

🔍 4️⃣ How Did the Gas Sector Emerge?

Bangladesh’s modern gas era has deep roots. Exploration began under British colonial rule:

In 1908, the first well was drilled at Sitakunda — but without success.
Serious finds only came in the 1950s when Pakistan Petroleum Ltd. (PPL) struck gas in Sylhet and Chhatak.
By the 1960s, Shell, the Anglo-Dutch oil major, discovered major fields — Titas, Habiganj, Rashidpur, Bakhrabad. Titas remains one of the largest fields to this day.
The gas was first used to fuel local fertilizer plants (like Fenchuganj) and cement factories (like Chhatak Cement).
After independence in 1971, the state companies took over Shell’s assets — this formed today’s Petrobangla and BAPEX, the national gas champions.

The early focus on domestic gas, instead of imported oil, gave Bangladesh an economic advantage that continues today.

✅ 5️⃣ The Emerging Crisis: Reserves Running Out

The big challenge now is depletion. Without significant new finds, proven reserves could run out in 8–12 years, experts warn (ADB 2022, World Bank 2022). Chevron’s Bibiyana field — Bangladesh’s largest — is producing over half of the daily supply, but high production could cause faster depletion, as happened with the offshore Sangu field, which dried up earlier than expected.

Meanwhile, the country’s rising population, new industries, and bigger cities are pushing gas demand up by 8–10% every year. This means Bangladesh must:

Speed up new exploration (onshore and offshore)
Tap deep-sea gas potential in the Bay of Bengal
Expand LNG import capacity — despite the high foreign exchange cost

Reference: Southeast Asia Energy Outlook, IEA 2023.

✅ 6️⃣ Petroleum Products & Oil Refining

Bangladesh still imports about 1.3 million metric tons of crude oil yearly — mostly refined at the Eastern Refinery Limited (ERL) in Chittagong. But this only meets part of the demand.

So, Bangladesh also imports ~2.7 million metric tons of refined oil products directly: diesel, furnace oil, petrol. These fuels power the transport sector (buses, trucks), irrigation pumps, and backup generators.

The dependence on oil imports strains foreign currency reserves — especially when global oil prices spike. Expanding domestic refining and storage capacity is a major policy goal.

🚙 7️⃣ CNG: Greener Urban Transport

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a big success story. Launched in the late 90s, the CNG program helped:

Cut oil imports.
Reduce urban smog in Dhaka.
Save millions in foreign exchange.

Today:

Bangladesh has over 587 CNG refueling stations.
About 213,000 vehicles, including buses and minibuses, run on CNG.
Over 75% of Dhaka’s buses use CNG — making urban transport cleaner.

Reference: Department of Explosives, BRTA Annual Report.

🏠 8️⃣ LPG: A Rural Solution

For rural or remote households far from gas pipelines, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a vital alternative. It reduces dependence on imported kerosene or biomass fuel.

Today, Bangladesh consumes about 95,000 metric tons of LPG each year — mostly supplied by private companies like Bashundhara and Beximco. But the potential market is more than 200,000 metric tons, if supply chains and affordability can improve.

To support adoption, the government has cut duties on stoves and cylinders to make LPG cheaper.

Reference: Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation Annual Report.

✅ 9️⃣ Future Outlook: Energy Security at a Crossroads

Bangladesh’s next decade will shape whether it can secure enough affordable energy to keep industries growing and families supplied.

Key parts of the roadmap:

Ramp up exploration of untapped onshore and deep-sea blocks.
Expand LNG imports through new terminals (Summit, Excelerate).
Diversify with more coal, nuclear, and renewables.
Expand cross-border power trade — today, 1,160 MW comes from India; future deals with Nepal and Bhutan could add clean hydro to the mix.
Scale up offshore wind and solar parks to cut carbon emissions and import costs.

✅ 10️⃣ Final Reflection

Bangladesh’s gas era has powered decades of progress. But the next chapter must be written with bold investment, smart policy, and stronger regional cooperation. Minerals, hydrocarbons, and renewables — all must work together to keep the lights on and industries growing for the next generation.

📚 Core References

Alam et al., Geology of Bangladesh (Elsevier, 2003)
Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation Annual Reports, 2023–2024
Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) Annual Reports
BAPEX & Petrobangla Data Book, 2023
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Country Diagnostics, 2022
IEA Southeast Asia Outlook, 2023
World Bank, Bangladesh Energy Sector Review, 2022
Department of Explosives Reports, 2022–2023
BRTA Annual Transport Report, 2022

Sunday, May 4, 2014

A Present Scenario of Forest Resources in Bangladesh: A Compact Analysis ( part-four)

1. Forest industries:

In general the following major categories of forest product-based industries are found in Bangladesh.

1. Sawmills

2. Manufacture of wood products including furniture

3. Production of hardboards, particleboards, chipboards, etc.

4. Manufacture of pulp, paper, newsprint and paper products

5. Match factories

6. Manufacturing of packaging paper

7. Production of various products from wood, bamboo, cane, patipata14, etc. as handicrafts (cottage industries

Most of the forest product-based industries in Bangladesh used to be owned by the Government through corporations such as BFIDC and Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation (BCIC). Recently (as of September 2007) the privatization commission is looking for buyers to sell out (Website of Privatization Commission) the following forest product-based industries.

1. Chittagong Board Mills, Chittagong

2. Chittagong Cabinet Manufacturing Unit, Chittagong

3. Chittagong Chemical Complex, Patenga, Chittagong

4. Dhaka Cabinet Manufacturing Unit, Dhaka

5. Eastern Wood Works

6. Fidco Furniture Complex, Chittagong.

7. Karnafuly Rayon & Chemicals Ltd., Kaptai, Rangamati

8. Karnaphuli Timber Extraction Unit

9. Khulna Cabinet Manufacturing Unit, Khulna

10. Khulna Hardboard Mills Ltd., Khulna

11. Khulna Newsprint Mills Ltd., Khulna

12. Lumber Processing Complex

13. North Bengal Paper Mills Ltd., Pakshi, Pabna

14. Particle Board Veneering Plant

15. Sangu Matamuhuri Timber Extraction Unit

16. Sangu Velly Timber Industries

17. Sylhet Pulp and Paper Mills Ltd., Sylhet

18. Wood Treating Unit, Chittagong

19. Wood Treating Unit, Khulna

3. Some environmental issues related to the forestry:

Other environmental issues in Bangladesh that may have some impact on the forestry sector are described below.

11.1 Air pollution

Air pollution is a serious environmental problem in Bangladesh especially in four major cities namely Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi. The Carbon Monoxide concentration in Dhaka

air is about 11ppm whereas the standard is 9 ppm. Similarly the lead concentration in Dhaka Air is 4.63 ug/m3 ppm whereas the standard is 0.5 -1 ug/m3 ppm. The concentration of Sulfur Dioxide in Dhaka commercial and residential areas is 472.9 ug/m3 and 63.5 ug/m3 respectively, whereas the standard is 40-60 ug/m3. General awareness about air pollution has triggered tree planting by the public in and around their residences. There will be a demand for specialized species that can serve different situations better. This in the future may require the FD to look for or undertake research to identify specialized species of plants that are suitable to meet the context.

11.2.Water pollution

Water is considered polluted when its physical, chemical and microbiological state is altered from its natural state and it becomes unsuitable or less suitable for any safe use or consumption. The signs of water pollution are bad taste, odours, turbidity, etc. Besides these obvious signs, there are other kinds of pollution, which are not so visible. There are basically two types of pollution, namely natural and man-made. The common natural water pollution in Bangladesh is the presence of arsenic in ground water. The Government in the past had large scale programmes for sinking tube wells for supplying safe drinking water to rural people. Now these have turned out to be dangerous and are being painted red. The human engineered water pollution in Bangladesh is considerable such as waste water from urban areas released into rivers and streams; industrial wastes drained into the rivers and streams; the runoff from crop fields and tea gardens that is often heavily loaded with toxic components of insecticides, fertilizers used in excess, etc. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides, mostly in agricultural fields is a source of serious water pollution, especially for river and flood water. Polluted water adversely affects vegetation especially sensitive species such as Anisopter glabra, Alstonia scholaris, etc. Polluted water very seriously affects ground flora. Sometimes water loaded with industrial effluent very adversely affects the growth of the trees and even causes the death of many saplings. Since ground water in many of the areas of Bangladesh is arsenic impregnated, the present bias is for “Rain Water Harvest”. Emphasis is gradually increasing on surface water use. It is well APFSOS II: Bangladesh 73 speculated that this search for surface water, will lead to catchment management for water supply. Forestry is the key to catchment management. In future this is going to be an added dimension to the forestry sector. In the near future this water pollution problem is very likely to create a new demand for catchment management under the forestry sector.

11.3. Degrading forests and shrinking green landscapes

Degrading forests and the shrinking of green landscapes has become a concern among the public.

This will have a positive impact on the forestry sector in the near future. This may be in the form of a public demand asking the Government to cater for more and more of such sites such as city parks, community parks, etc.

11.4. Exotic species

The present trend in plantations is for fast growing species which are mostly exotic. Species such as Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia mangium, Eucalyptus spp, etc. are commonly used. Already planting of such exotic species is being questioned. During the last couple of years the FD has been criticized for raising pure plantations of single species, especially along the highways in Bangladesh. It is envisaged that this will grow still stronger and the FD may have to face serious criticisms if the existing trends continue. However participants under the Social Forestry Programme are interested in fast growing high yielding species. In the near future the FD will have to look for some sort of compromise limiting the use of fast growing high yielding exotic species in plantation establishment.

11.5. Outdoor recreation

With increased urbanization, outdoor recreation has become very popular. No doubt this change is bringing more and more revenue for the government but it has the impact of littering of parks and natural ecosystems. This will impact future forestry planning to increase recreation sites as well as to combat littering and pollution of these recreational sites.

11.6.Soil degradation

Overharvesting or depletion of vegetation is the root cause of soil degradation. It is established that the soils in most of the hill forests and Sal forest areas are degrading. Soil degradation is very serious in the case of USF lands in Chittagong Hill tracts. In future the forestry sector will have to address this issue.

11.7. Waste disposal

Since waste disposal can generate bio-gas it may have some impact on the forestry sector by reducing the pressure on fuel-wood. In rural areas bio-gas plants are gradually becoming popular. Some NGOs are promoting the establishment of small scale bio-gas plants by providing technical assistance and sometimes by extending small loans. Such endeavours being mostly in the rural areas have a direct impact on cutting back the demand on fuel-wood. Since these small scale biogas plants are closely associated with cow-dung and cattle, with the enhancing trend of house hold cattle rearing, there is every possibility that fodder demand will increase. In this situation fuelwood demand is expected to fall and in turn illegal collection fuel-wood from the forests especially from the Government forests may decline. With larger cattle populations the demand for forages especially from the adjoining Government forest will increase. This will have a definite impact on the forestry sector. Since this is an emerging phenomenon, it needs to be borne in mind while planning future forestry activities.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations:

Bangladesh is very rich with her diverse forest resources. But, both the in situ and ex situ programs to conserve, manage and use of forest resources are not adequate. Even, the existing conservation activities are not properly working. Hence, the conservation area should be increased significantly as well protection of the forest resources need to be more secured. Database on the status of the forest resources in different forest types should be established and updated continuously. Education and training of professionals and technicians in forest genetic resource conservation programs should be expanded. Curricula should be update according the needs of the society. More monetary allocation must be provided for all sorts of conservation programs through proper Government Institutes. In Bangladesh, the population pressure on forest resources is severe. Participatory approach with the local people must be considered in the conservation of forest resource.

A present Scenario of Forest Resources In Bangladesh: A Compact Analysis ( Part- three)

5. 2. Tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests:

Tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests are extended over Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet totaling an area of 6,70,000 hectare which is 4.54% of the total landmass of the country and 44% of national forest land. Depending on topography, soil and climate this area are categorized as i) Tropical wet evergreen forests and ii) Tropical semi-evergreen forests.

The hill forests are abundant with numerous plant as well as animal species. Some important flora are Garjan (Dipterocarpus spp.), Chapalish (Artocarpus chaplasha), Telsur (Hopea odorata), Tali (Palaquium polyanthrum), Kamdeb (Callophyllum polyanthum), Uriam (Mangifera sylvatica), Jarul (Legarstromia speciosa), Civit (Swintonia floribunda), Toon (Cedrela toona), Bandorhola (Duabanga grandiflora) etc. Moreover there are bamboo, cane, climbers and fern etc. in these forests.

These forests are brought under plantation programme since 1871. At present, plantation activities are being conducted under development projects. Some valuable plantation species are Teak (Tectona grandis), Gamar (Gmelina arborea), Mehogani (Swietenia spp), Chapalish (Artocarpus chaplasha), Jarul (Legarstromia speciosa), Koroi (Albizzia spp), Chikrassi (Chikrassia tabularis), Pynkado (Xylia dolabriformis), Kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba), Telsur (Hopea odorata) etc.

The latest forest inventory shows that a total of 23,93 million cubic meter forest products are available there. Among the mammals Elephant (Elephas maximus), monkey (Macaca mulatta), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Barking Deer ( Muntiacus muntjak), Samvar (Cervus unicolor), and Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus). Among the reptiles King cobra (Ophiophagus hanna) Monitor Lizard (Varanus salvator) and Bengal Monitor Lizard (Varanus bengalensis) are remarkable

5.3. Tropical moist deciduous Forests:

The Central and northern districts covering an area of 1,20,000 ha about 0.81% of total land mass of the country and 7.8% of the country’s forest land are bestowed with Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests. This forest is intermingled with the neighbouring settlements and fragmented into smaller patches. Sal (Shorea robusta) is the main species there with other associates like Koroi (Albizzia procera), Azuli (Dillenia pentagyna), Sonalu (Cassia fistula), Bohera (Terminalia belerica), Haritaki (Terminalia chebula), Kanchan (Bauhinia acuminata), Jarul (Lagerstroemia speciosa), Jam (Syzygium spp) etc.

A recent forest inventory encountered that 3.75 million cubic meter wood available in the sal forests. Presently participatory forestry programme are being implemented here under the social forestry initiatives. Among the mammals, Jackel (Canis aureus), Monkey (Macaca mulatta), Wild cat (Felis chaus) etc. are found there and among the reptiles Bengal Monitor Lizard (Varanus bengalensis) and common cobra are remarkable.

5.4. Village Forests:

Tree coverage in the village forests are 2,70,000 hectare which acts as the source of a remarkable portion of national demand of forest produces. The latest inventory exhibits that a total of 54.7 million cu m forest products are available in this village forests.

1. Some different types of foresty:

6.1. Social Forestry

Social Forestry programs have been initiated with a view to meet the forest product requirements of local population and to reverse the process of ecological and climatic degradation through proper soil and water conservation and to improve the socio economic condition of the rural people.

Social Forestry programs have following objectives:

1. To meet the needs for fuel wood, small timber, bamboo, fodder and other minor forest produces on sustained basis.

2. To provide employment opportunities to the rural population.
3. To develop cottage industries in rural areas.
4. To utilize the available land to the best advantage according to its production capacity.
5. To provide efficient soil and water conservation.
6. To improve aesthetic value of the area and to meet the recreational needs of the population.

6.2. Agro Forestry

As a concept, Agroforestry is not new in forestry practice. Forest Department has been practicing this in the name of Taungya in the hill forest for last 100 years. But as a science for natural resource management, it is new. Agroforestry as the name implies is the practice of growing agriculture and forestry on the same land at same time to optimize the land utilization. In the plain land forest i.e. in Sal Forest, Forest Department is practicing this system for decades together on a participatory approach to replant the barren forestland and after harvest; a share will go to the participating members. This is a multipurpose approach to replant barren land with the help of participants and protect it by them to build up forest resources. At the end of the rotation, the shares of the harvested forest products are distributed to the participants in accordance to an agreement with the participants.

This concept is doing well in the ‘Sal Forest’ of Dhaka, Tangail, Mymensing, Rajshahi, Rangpur and Dinajpur. New programs of agroforestry have been incorporated in the ADB aided Forestry Sector Project launched by the Forest Department. In this project 6450 hectare of new plantations will be raised on the degraded Sal Forest and another 5400 hectare will be raised on the harvested land of old Agroforestry plantations.

6.3. Participatory Forestry:

From last two decades there has been a gradual shift in the forest management approach adopted by Forest Department i.e from its traditional custodian role to a more participatory approach. Accordingly the provision of people’s participation in protecting the natural forest and afforesting the degraded and encroached forestland with benefit sharing mechanism has been developed and people’s participation has been ensured.

The ADB funded Community Forestry Project implemented in the seven northern districts from 1981 to 1987 paved the foundation of Participatory forestry in Bangladesh. Following this other ADB funded project named ‘Thana afforestation and nursery development project’, ‘Green Belt project’ were implemented and now ‘Forestry sector project’ is being implemented throughout the country. Major components of this project are: Woodlot, Agro forestry and Strip plantations etc

2. Protected areas of Bangladesh:

Protected Area Covers 10.72% of Total Forest Area. Protected Areas include Wildlife Sanctuary, National Park and Game Reserve. Their definitions in the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (henceforth Wildlife Order) is as follows:

Wildlife Sanctuary means an area closed to hunting, shooting or trapping of wild animals and declared as such under Article 23 by the government as undisturbed breeding ground primarily for the protection of wildlife inclusive of all natural resources such as vegetation soil and water.

National Park means comparatively large areas of outstanding scenic and natural beauty with the primary object of protection and preservation of scenery, flora and fauna in the natural state to which access for public recreation and education and research may be allowed. Game Reserve means an area declared by the government as such for the protection of wildlife and increase in the population of important species wherein capturing of wild animals shall be unlawful.

3. Forest Products:

NWFP (Non Wood Forest Products): Some of the important non-wood forest products are listed below: -

8.1. Bamboo (Melocanna baccifera, Bambusa tulda etc.): Plays a very crucial role in our rural economy and is a singular essential material for construction of temporary house / shelter for the rural people, especially for the hilly tribal people.

8.2. Sungrass (Imperata spp.): The most common roofing / thatching material for temporary low -cost housing in the villages and forest terrain's of Bangladesh.

8.3.Cane (Calamus viminalis,Calamus guruba):Used for domestic purposes by the rural people, but more so, for sophisticated furniture making & luxury souvenir articles.

8.4.Pati Pata / Murta (Clinogynae dichotoma): This is an excellent material for floor-mats (Pati), which is extensively used by the poor villagers and also as a luxury item for the rich people. This is also exported by the cottage industries as a finished product.

8.5.Gol-Pata (Nypa fruticans): This is a very popular and essential thatching / roofing material for poor people, around Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira districts and fetches handsome revenue for the Forest Department.

8.6.Leaves, Bark & Fruits"Kurus pata'': Holarrhena antidysenterica is very popular for medicinal use. Horitaki (Terminalia chebula), Amlaki (Phyllanthus emblica), Bohera (Terminalia belerica) popularly called "Trifala" (Myrabolum) are used as medicine in the country.

8.7.Honey: Used as food, drink, beverage and also as a medicine in the country.

8.8. Shells, Conch-Shells, oysters etc: Considerable quantity of shells, oysters, conchshells are collected by local inhabitants, as a means of livelihood in the coastal forest-belts, like Cox's Bazar, Teknaf, Moheshkhali, Barisal, Patuakhali, Sundarbans etc. These are highly priced by tourists as souvenir articles and as such may be exported.

8.9. Fish Resources: In rivers flowing inside forest areas like Sundarbans, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet (as well as in the coastal belts and offshore islands under the jurisdiction of Forest Department) considerable quantity of different types of fish (both sweet-water and saline fish) are harvested by local fishermen, for which the Forest Department earns revenue.

Continued...........